Criminology Final
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Which of the following statement is *not* related to Sutherland's concept of differential association?
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deviant behavior results from definitions favorable to crime which are learned in social relationships, we learn criminal behavior by the social relationships we hold
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Edwin Sutherland came up with a theory of differential association, which he expressed in nine presuppositions. Which of the following is the most central concept of his theory?
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deviations results from definitions favorable to crime learned in social relationships
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According to Akers, which of the following is not a dimension of social structure that allows for social learning?
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*Social structure dimensions that allow for social learning: 1) society and community (differential social organization) 2) age, gender, race, class (differential location in the social structure) 3) Social disorganization, conflict (theoretically defined structural variables) 4) family, peers, school, work, others (differential social location in groups)
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In Akers' social structure and social learning (SSSL) model, _____________ refers to individual's membership in and relationship to primary, secondary and reference groups such as family and work groups.
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differential association
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Sutherland's theory of differential association has nine propositions. Which of the following is one of them?
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1) criminal behavior is learned. 2) criminal behavior is learned in interaction with other persons in a process of communication 3) the principal part of the learning of criminal behavior occurs within intimate personal groups. 4) when criminal behavior is learned, the learning includes techniques of committing the same crime, which are sometimes very complicated, sometimes very simple, and the specific direction of motives, drives rationalizations, and attitudes. 5) the specific direction of motives and drives is learned from definitions of the legal codes as favorable or unfavorable. 6) a person because of an excess of definitions favorable to violation of law. 7) differential associations may vary in frequency, duration, priority, and intensity. 8) the process of learning criminal behavior by association with criminal and noncriminal patterns involves all of the mechanisms that are involved in any other learning. 9) while criminal behavior is an expression of general needs and values, it is not explained by those general needs and values, since non criminal behavior is an expression of the same needs and values
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According to Wright and Decker, which of the following is *not* an explanation of how burglars pick a target.
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Usually have a house in mind already. They can either personally know the occupants (casual acquaintances), have had a job that put them in the house (construction, cable, mover), receive a tip from a friend, drug dealers make good targets,
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Rehabilitation based upon individuals receiving a negative stimuli is example of which of the below terms?
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positive punishment
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Which of the following is an example of neutralization theory?
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Denying responsibility. I had to do it Denying the injury. Didn't really hurt anyone Blaming the victim. It was the victim's fault Condemning the condemner Appealing to a higher loyalty
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Which reason for stealing from a particular house is cited most frequently by house burglars?
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having the house in mind already (knowing the occupant) the burglary or the need for quick money. it's usually a house they have been to and they know the occupant as an acquaintance, Often had jobs that put them into peoples' houses, Receiving a tip from a friend, Drug dealers ideal victims—cash, no police
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According to Wright and Decker, which of the following is not true about burglars?
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Burglars do it because they need money now, rarely save the money they steal, some do it for the thrill, do it because their job doesn't pay enough, don't ask to borrow money because of the shame or no support network, do burglary because it's the only crime they had access too and isn't dangerous, usually have a house in mind when they decide they need to steal
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What is a weakness of differential association theory?
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How did the first delinquency start? Unclear definition of \"definitions\" Difficult to measure and test definitions
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Which of the following does differential reinforcement theory *not* emphasize
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in addition to the concepts from differential association theory it emphasizes operant conditioning. Operant conditioning studies how behavior is influenced by rewards and punishments. also classical and imitation.
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Bob is caught littering and is forced to pay a fine. What kind of differential reinforcement is this?
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positive punishment
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Which of the following statements highlights the strengths of differential association theory
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it explains the importance of delinquent friends
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Based on what you know about burglary from Wright and Decker's study, which of the following would be least effective as a means to prevent being burgled?
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Neighborhood watch—burglaries usually in disorganized neighborhoods Occupancy proxies (music, lights)—burglars usually already know your schedule
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In his social learning theory of crime, Ron Akers identifies various ways that we learn criminal behavior. Which of the following is the best example of negative punishment?
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taking away something good
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Which kind of policy implications does Strain Theory have?
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Strain theory says that if you give the poor, who usually commit more crime, more opportunities, they will be less frustrated and less likely to commit crime. strain theory says that crime arises due to social frustration and stress
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According to Merton's strain theory, which mode of individual adaptation can explain white-collar criminals?
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Innovation Accept society's but reject means Create new means, which are often illegal--crime
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According to Messner and Rosenfeld, the American dream values achievement, individualism, universalism, and a money fetish. In terms of strain theory, what does the American Dream represent
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Conformity: Accepts society's approved goals and means Most common mode of adaptation
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How does Cloward add to Merton's strain theory?
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Apply Merton's logic for access to crime Some crime requires opportunities Training Contact Not all have opportunity
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At what point in life does frustration or strain become most evident according to Merton?
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Frustration and strain becomes most evident in late teens to mid-20's when crime tends to peak.
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Which of the following is true about Cloward et al. (1960)'s theory of differential opportunity?
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- Much delinquency is primarily aimed at obtaining wealth through illegitimate means. - Recognition that illegitimate means for success are not automatically available from youth. - The presence or absence of illegitimate opportunity dictates the form taken by delinquent subculture.
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Below is a list of criminal behaviors. Which would be best explained by Cloward and Ohlin's concept of conflict subcultures?
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1) Criminal subculture Accept conventional goals Have access to illegal means, therefore crime E.g., gangs 2) Conflict subcultures Accept conventional goals No access to legal or illegal means Status through violence E.g., prisons 3) Retreatist subcultures Reject conventional goals No access to legal or illegal means Drop out, often self-medicate with substances E.g., alcoholics, drug cultures
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Which of the below summarizes the emphasis of general strain theory?
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Basic assumption: crime = reacting to social stress and frustration
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According to Merton's modes of social adaptation, \"Innovation\" is a case in which:
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Innovation Accept society's but reject means Create new means, which are often illegal--crime
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Which of the following statement is the advantages of Merton's strain theory?
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How societal values and structures generate crime Explains macro-level variation—across countries, across time Explains crime among poor Disadvantages Assumes monolithic value structure. Deviant subcultures? Non-monetary crimes? Why individuals in identical situations respond to strain very differently? Which mode choosen? Hard to measure strain White-collar crime?
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Which is not one of the characteristics of Cloward and Ohlin's three subcultures?
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1) Criminal subculture Accept conventional goals Have access to illegal means, therefore crime E.g., gangs 2) Conflict subcultures Accept conventional goals No access to legal or illegal means Status through violence E.g., prisons 3) Retreatist subcultures Reject conventional goals No access to legal or illegal means Drop out, often self-medicate with substances E.g., alcoholics, drug cultures
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Which of the following is not an example of retreatist subcultures?
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3) Retreatist subcultures Reject conventional goals No access to legal or illegal means Drop out, often self-medicate with substances E.g., alcoholics, drug cultures
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In Robert Merton's strain theory, there are various modes of adaptation to strain. What is the difference between innovation and rebellion?
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Conformity: Accepts society's approved goals and means Most common mode of adaptation E.g., middle-class kid going to college Retreatism Reject both the goals and means of society Complete opposite of conformity E.g., druggies, vagrants Rebellion Reject both goals and means of society, like retreatism Create new goals and means E.g., political revolution, commune Ritualism Reject society's goals but keep means Doing what's \"right\" with no hope of goals Innovation Accept society's but reject means Create new means, which are often illegal--crime
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Both Cloward and Ohlin and Merton presented versions of strain theory. How does Cloward and Ohlin's theory go beyond Merton?
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Apply Merton's logic for access to crime Some crime requires opportunities Training Contact Not all have opportunity
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Which example related to strain theory illustrates conventional goals being emphasized more than conventional means?
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innovation
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Generally speaking, what is \"strain\", as used in strain theory?
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When means not enough for goals: strain An uncomfortable psychological experience Individuals want to alleviate strain
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How is labeling theory relevant to public policy regarding crime prevention?
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Policy implications Be careful with punishment, especially 1st time offenders Diversion programs—no stigmatization Juvenile courts and confidentiality Can use threat of labeling as deterrent
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Complete the sentence with the best answer: Labeling theory does not ...............................
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....explain primary deviance or address root causes. ....provide a stimulus and response between \"actor\" and reactor.\" ...explain crimes that aren't caught ...explain variation in criminal propensity ....address why there are gender differences in crime
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According to Gove's article, labeling theory argues that those who are likely to be labeled as deviant are?
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Those who are least entitled and cannot defend themselves (ex. cannot afford a lawyer, poor)
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Which of the below best illustrates the concept of the looking glass self?
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Obtaining one's self-image through the eyes of others.
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Which of the following is not true according to Gove's article on labeling?
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Labeling theory = criminal behavior increases bc individuals are caught & labeled as offenders. Stigmatized = criminal activity increases. 5 steps: Primary deviance Society detects crime and reacts (1 reaction = labeling) Society reacts by giving neg. label Individual incorporates label into self-identity Secondary deviance
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Gove's article, \"A Labeling Perspective\" argues that labeling theorists typically ignores
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The contribution of the individual to the establishment of their own deviant identity(primary deviance) Ex: When a person robs a store, labeling theorists ignore the fact that the person had a motive to do so and knew that they may be labeled a criminal.
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According to Stolzenberg and D'Alessio, what is the relationship between gun availability and violent crimes?
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There is virtually no evidence that legitimate gun availability influences the violent crime rate or crimes committed with a gun.
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Which of the following is not true according to Stolzenberg et al.(2000)?
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Not True: legitimate gun availability increases crime. Not true: offenders are substituting knives for guns when illegal guns become scarce. (Boundaries 357)
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Stolzenberg and D'Alessio analyzed the relationship between gun availability and crime in South Carolina. Which of the following statements best summarizes their findings?
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More illegal guns=more crime. Most guns are stolen. \"Counties with low population densities not only have lower violent crime levels, but they also have a higher percentage of their population on AFDC. In contrast, more heavily populated counties have a higher violent crime rate and lower percentage of their population on AFDC\" (Boundaries 356-357)
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The self-fulfilling prophecy concept helps us to understand Labeling Theory. According to Merton, self-fulfilling prophecy can be described as?
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A self-fulfilling prophecy is a prediction that, in being made, actually causes itself to become true
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According to labeling theory, some people are more likely than others to receive negative labels. From this description of five individuals, who do you think is most likely to receive a criminal label (assuming that all have committed a similar act of primary deviance)
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a self-fulfilling prophecy is a prediction that, in being made, actually causes itself to become true. e.g., thinking you won't do well on a test and then failing the test.
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Labeling theory specifies both primary and secondary deviance. Which of the following statements about them is *NOT* true?
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1) Primary deviance Individual commits some crime—for whatever reason 5) Secondary deviance Changed self-perception = more crime Self-fulfilling prophesy
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Labeling theory has profound and radical implications for the criminal justice system. Which of the following changes would *NOT* be consistent with labeling theory?
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Policy implications Be careful with punishment, especially 1st time offenders Diversion programs—no stigmatization Juvenile courts and confidentiality Can use threat of labeling as deterrent
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Which of the following statement is NOT true about gun and crime?
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Guns & death 31,000 people killed by guns in USA/ year Suicide—19,800 Homicide—11,100 Unintentional—800 In 2003, guns (mostly handguns) were involved in 7% of all violent crimes 5,800 rapes 138,000 robberies About ½ million guns stolen each year Guns are valuable and may attract burglary & robbery Guns make it easier to kill people Visual cue for anger So, the mere presence of a gun, even if not used, increases aggression level Gives opportunity for more lethal attack, if you lose control of the firearm. Redefine situation as more lethal No correlation between gun control strictness and homicides
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About how many guns are there in the United States?
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300 million
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Which of the following topics is not covered in the Stolzenberg article?
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He talks about how legal guns don't influence violent crime rates but how illegal guns DO. Also talks about \"Counties with low population densities not only have lower violent crime levels, but they also have a higher percentage of their population on AFDC. In contrast, more heavily populated counties have a higher violent crime rate and lower percentage of their population on AFDC\" (Boundaries 356-357) There are two approaches discussed as well: Gun owners should better secure their weapons in their homes, and law enforcement should focus more on the theft of firearms.
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What is the relationship between having a gun in the home and being murdered?
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Homes with guns have 2.7 times more homicide victims than other homes
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According to Durkheim, which of the following would help lower the amount of crime?
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reduce income inequality? Following the norms of society. Perhaps doing similar activities in daily routine and constant interaction with like members of the society lead to strong uniformity in values = collective conscience = less crime (text, 167) Sharing moral beliefs and opinions = help lower amount of crime (text 168) regulation: regulate behavior towards norm integration: integrate people with collective social bonds
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Which of the following statement is NOT true about conflict theory?
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Conflict theories Assume different groups have different interests, values, and power Those with power create the law, use it to control other groups Use law to protect their power Key question: Why are some acts defined as criminal while others are not (vs. why do some people commit crime) So, theory of law formation and enforcement Conflict theory views inequality as dysfunctional. People at bottom held their by those with power
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Which of the following statement is most true about Marx's view about crime?
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Basic assumptions Three classes in society Capitalists—ruling class Petite bourgeoisie—middle class Proletariat—the poor Crime is inevitable... \"haves\" and \"have nots\" Criminal justice system advances interests of ruling class Laws protect economically and socially E.g., strikes, buying alcohol, seizing property Punishes them lightly if caught Crimes, and society's reactions, vary by class Proletariat commit only crimes available to them... street crimes such as violent and property crimes Society punishes these very harshly Petit bourgeoisie commit crimes such as cheating on taxes & employee theft Society disapproves of these but rarely punishes them strictly Commit acts that should be illegal but are not E.g., racism, sexism, profiteering, price fixing, environmental damage, false advertising, restraint of trade Rarely if ever punished, and if so, done lightly
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Which of the following is an important aspect of critical criminology?
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Focuses on challenging traditional understandings and uncovering false beliefs about crime and criminal justice. The major sources of crime stem from unequal class, race/gender/ethnic relations control society.
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Which of the following does not account for the deviance rate according to Spitzer (1975)?
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Deviance Rate: -extensiveness and intensity of State control -Size and level of threat presented by problem population -Level of organization of Problem population -Effectiveness of control structuctures organized thru civil society -Availability and effectiveness of parallel control structures -Availability and effectiveness of alternative types of official processing -Utility of problem population
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Spitzer argues that Marxian theories of deviance correct a problem in traditional criminological theories. He argues traditional theories:
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Are non-structural and ahistorical. Ignore the political economy Ignore the control process and the theory of control pSeen as an episodic phenomenon, not a long term structural change
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Which of the below is a major critique of conflict theories?
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disregards how shared values and the way in which people rely on each other help unify the society Findings of conflict theory research may be interpreted in more than one way. Unable to distinguish between alternative explanations of the theory. difficult to test since unit of analysis is nations/societies, hard to operationalize (who exactly are the elite?) and plenty of crime in non capitalist societies
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According to Spitzer, what problem do most criminological theories suffer from?
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Non structural and ahistorical
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American Jim Crow laws against people of color would fall under which type of government crime?
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•Normative Conflict (different sub groups have different norms) •Norms of powerful subcultures become laws •Crime becomes following different cultural norms •jim crow laws- people of color had less power
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Which is not an advantage of conflict theory?
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Advantages of conflict theories Laws as mechanisms of oppression Points to unfairness Fits well with social movements and crimes with differing acceptance Explains why laws change over time (e.g., marijuana, liquor sold on Sundays, gambling)... changing interests of powerful
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What does conflict theory suggest?
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Assume different groups have different interests, values, and power Those with power create the law, use it to control other groups Use law to protect their power
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A program is developed to help youth who enter the juvenile justice system develop their skills. What conflict perspective does this best represent?
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rehabilitation model
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According to Chambliss and Seidman, what best describes the purpose of law?
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The law is a tool for those in power, functioning to provide coercive power in conflict.
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Conflict theories focus on ______, whereas routine activities theories focus on ______.
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people with power control other groups, use law to protect power vs. rational criminal (motivated offender, find suitable target, absence of a capable guardian)
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What does conflict theory have the most trouble explaining?
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Things that are inherently deviant, like a serial killer Gender differences: Women have less power but are arrested less often.
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Suppose that the local auto shop does unnecessary repairs to your car in order to make more money, this would be a type of
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white collar crime - occupational crime corporate crime**** (under examples in lecture 12)
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Which of the following statement is NOT true about routine activities theory?
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1) Motivated offender Somebody able and wanting to commit crime (Focus of prior theories) 2) Suitable target Has something of value Visible Accessible 3) Absence of a capable guardian Assumes rational criminal A theory of \"victimization\" (not offending) Links crime rates to broader social changes
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Which of the following theory states that maintaining and monitoring urban environments in a well-ordered condition may stop further vandalism and escalation into more serious crime?
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Broken Windows Theory
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What is the ecological theory of crime meant to explain?
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linking crime to ecological characteristics - physical status, economic status, population, stability
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How did the addition of police foot patrols affect crime?
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Foot patrol had not reduced crime rates, but residents of foot-patrolled neighborhoods felt more secure and seemed to take fewer steps to protect themselves from crime
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According to Wilson and Kelling (1982), which of the following statement is NOT true about foot-patrol project?
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TRUE: Police had a zero tolerance policy and cracked down on minor crimes(offenders committing bigger crimes were also the ones committing smaller ones) Added 5,000 more police officers that were responsible at a neighborhood level Crime rates dropped Over-active police/harassment TRUE: You can approach an officer on foot more easily, and talk to him more readily than one in a car (Boundaries 445)
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According to Cohen and Felson, what stops a crime from occurring even if someone who wishes to commit a crime has spotted an easy target?
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if there is a capable guardian present
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According to Luckenbill, what happens after an offender interprets the victim's actions as offensive and retaliates?
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a few short blows and then the offender either kills the victim or leaves to get a weapon and comes back to kill the victim, or walks away
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Crime rates went up in the 1960s and 70s, some researchers explained this change as due to fewer women staying at home. In terms of routine activity theory, this change resulted in more crime because it produced:
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Suitable targets → More women out working and not at home Absence of a capable guardian → With two parents working, children were under less supervision. This could support the argument that women going back to work created an absence of a capable guardian.
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Which of the following is NOT a common problem of cities with high crime rates?
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ARE Problems: The trend of businesses and factories invading the traditionally residential areas influencing information social controls, Psychological indifference toward the neighborhood (no one cares about protecting the community anymore), Transitional Zones: recent immigrant groups, transient populations, deteriorated housing, abandoned buildings, and Often cities of rapid urbanization/industrialization.
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A 7th grader begins to spend more time with older youth in his neighborhood and learns how to hotwire cars. What concept of Shaw and Mckay does this best demonstrate?
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peer groups become important → young people teach crime to each other per social learning theories
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Social disorganization theory holds that the same neighborhoods will display high levels of crime over the years. According to the theory, why is this?
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a culture of crime develops that propagates itself. Crime stays, even as people change. -Normal people acting appropriately in abnormal situations.
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Which of the below best summarizes the lifestyles perspective theory?
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individuals increase their probability of becoming victims (as well as offenders) according to the lifestyle they choose
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In routine activities theory, Felson talks of what deems a target suitable. Which of the following characteristics is *not* one of the characteristics of a suitable target?
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suitable target characteristics: have something that is valuable/something that you want, is someone that wont stop you from taking it from them, you know that they exist/can access them -high reward -quick transportation -controllable
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Which of the following is not one of the characteristics of the Transitional Zone according to Shaw and McKay?
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Recent Immigration Groups deteriorated housing factories abandoned buildings condemned buildings decreasing populations people on welfare single parents most minorities and foreign born residents people move around a lot
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What is the basic premise of social disorganization theory?
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Rates of crime vary by neighborhoods. Neighborhoods change individual behavior 1) Disrupt social organization Weaker schools, work, and families These institutions reduce crime (as per social control theories) 2) Peer groups become more important Become delinquent-focused Young people teach crime to each other (as per social learning theories) 3) A culture of crime develops Transmitted from one generation to the next Crime stays, even as people change
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While Luckenbill developed his character contest theory with homicide, we can also apply it to other types of crimes. Which of the following situations would most easily be explained by his theory?
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one on one confrontations (robbery, kidnapping, etc.)
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In Shaw and McKay's social disorganization theory, what are the characteristics of neighborhoods with the highest levels of criminal behavior?
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more poverty, neighborhood visibly looks run down, transient occupants, near inner city district/business district
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Which of the following best summarizes Shaw and McKay's social disorganization theory?
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Rates of crime vary by neighborhoods. Neighborhoods change individual behavior 1) Disrupt social organization Weaker schools, work, and families These institutions reduce crime (as per social control theories) 2) Peer groups become more important Become delinquent-focused Young people teach crime to each other (as per social learning theories) 3) A culture of crime develops Transmitted from one generation to the next Crime stays, even as people change
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What is a common critique of the ecological approach to deviance?
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doesn't explain crime coming into cities, or crimes in suburbs/rich towns
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According to Wilson and Kelling's article, \"Broken Windows,\" why are policemen more likely to help than other citizens in a time of emergency? (from a psychological perspective)
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Other citizens are focused on their own safety in times of crisis while police are more likely to see themselves as personally responsible to help others. -The police officer's uniform singles him out as a person who must personally accept responsibility(Boundaries 451)
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When William Bratton was appointed the police chief for New York City, how did the New York Police Department change its procedures?
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they started cracking down on the small crimes. assumed that people who were committing small crimes were likely also those committing big crimes and they often would arrest someone for ex open container and then find drugs, weapons on them etc
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While 42 million felonies are committed, only 12 million are reported to police. Which of the following DON'T explain this gap:
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some things that do: crimes committed against family members or friends and they dont want to report, crimes committed against drug dealers, hookers, etc that would compromise/incriminate them if they reported it
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Which of the following factors DO NOT influence police decisions on whether to further investigate crime?
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Factors influencing police decisions Public opinion about law in questions Perceived severity of offense Expected cooperation from witnesses Status of victims Size of existing caseloads Departmental pressure/ emphases
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Which of the following is the justice model which rooted in choice theory and related to build more prisons?
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Crime control model Protect the public and deter criminal behavior Punishment designed to fit the crime Building more prisons and using the death penalty Rooted in choice theory Became a dominant force in American justice in the 1960s and 1970s
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Which of the following is a characteristic of peacemaking criminology?
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-Peacemaking criminology incorporates three intellectual traditions: religious, feminist, and critical; contends that society should attempt reconciliation through mediation and dispute settlement (Textbook, forget what page though, sorry fam) pg 276
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About what percentage of Americans are under some form of supervision by the criminal justice
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Almost 7 million are under the control of the correctional system with 2 million people in jails and prisons
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Which of the following aspects of the criminal justice system is *not* marked by potentially arbitrary decision making?
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Legal representation Quality of lawyer linked to resources of defendant Public defenders appointed if not able to afford one (decision made by CJ) Public defenders have less time & energy per client. Prosecution and Pretrial Charges dropped? Strength of evidence Put into diversion program? Given bail? Safety and flight risk? Decision to Charge Why not? Witness problems Insufficient evidence Size of caseload, notoriety of case Plea Bargain Commonly negotiated. Once charged, about 17 plea bargains for each trail case. Prosecutors sometimes \"overcharge\"—as many crimes as possible—to motivate plea bargain Plea bargains cheaper, look good for prosecutor Known outcome for defendant But, judge has to rule if plea bargain is warranted. Sufficient punishment and if guilty is warranted Adjudication decision Defendants can choose trail by judge or jury Sometimes judge is preferable (technical cases). Sometimes jury is preferable (emotional appeal of defendant) Juries usually make unanimous decisions
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Which of the following themes is an assumption of the retributive justice approach?
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that the crime had victims, that the perpetrator will be caught Refers to the repair of justice through one-sided approach of imposing punishment Focuses on public vengeance as well as punishment exacted through an adversarial process
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Which one of the following is *not* part of the juvenile justice system?
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1. Parens Patriae: Latin term meaning \"parent of the country\" - recognizes that state has right/obligation to intervene on behalf and to protect its citizens who have some impairment such as mental incompetence (juveniles - immaturity) More of a civil case than a criminal case 34 states use term: \"once an adult, always an adult\" (once tried and convicted as adult, must be prosecuted in criminal court for any subsequent offenses) Judicial Waiver: authority to waive juvenile court jurisdiction and transfer case to criminal court Concurrent Jurisdiction: Original jurisdiction for certain cases is shared by both criminal and juvenile courts; prosecutor has discretion to file such cases in either court Statutory Exclusion: excludes certain juvenile offenders from juvenile court jurisdiction; cases originate in criminal rather than juvenile court
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Which of the following is most true about the crime-control model and the justice model?
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Crime Control Model Protect the public and deter criminal behavior Punishment designed to fit the crime Building more prisons and using the death penalty Rooted in choice theory Became a dominant force in American justice in the 1960s and 1970s Justice Model Futile to rehabilitate criminals because treatment programs are ineffective Determinate sentencing is needed for fairness Parole should be abolished Establish greater degree of certainty in minds of public and criminal that fixed and precise prison terms will be served by those who commit crime
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Which of the following is *not* a possible component of probation?
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probation = an arrangement between the sentencing authorities and the offender requiring the offender to comply with certain terms for a specified amount of time (Text, 6) I'm thinking these are the components: (?) -General conditions = offenders regularly reporting to their supervising officer, obeying the laws, submitting to searches, and not being in possession of firearms or using drugs -Specific conditions = participating in methadone maintenance, urine testing, house arrest, vocational training, or psychological or psychiatric treatment -Also shock incarceration = when a judge combines probation with incarceration which involves sentencing the offender to spend a certain amount of time each week in some type of institution like a jail.
