Cicero – 3911 words – College Essay Example

separating knowledge and reason from tradition and sentiment.The text illustrates that Roman society was unable to fully embrace Greek philosophy focused on knowledge and brotherhood. Even esteemed individuals like Cicero struggled to accept stoic doctrine in its entirety. Stoicism originated in Greece and was based on the belief in a precisely ordered universe. According to stoics, there was a hidden order behind the apparent chaos of the universe. Human beings were meant to find order within this universe by aligning themselves with the universal order. Wisdom lay in harmonizing with this order, while sin involved resisting it. Stoics also believed in a rational plan in nature, and our role was to live in accordance with this plan. They saw divinity within the natural order, considering it as God and viewing Greek and Roman beliefs as mere superstitions. Stoics also had an indifference towards life, understanding that the natural plan could not be altered. This attitude made them retreat from seeking fame. One core belief held by stoics was in the universal community of mankind. They believed that a political community was nothing more than its laws' boundaries since natural laws are universally imposed. Hence, there existed a universal political community where all people shared membership.This initial interpretation of stoicism is commonly seen as the early stoic stage, before it was influenced by the Romans. When adopted by the Romans, stoicism underwent a period of Romanization, or adaptation, to better fit into Roman society. Cicero's ideal state, which he described as having a dominant ruling element, aristocratic influences, and decisions made by the people, overlooks the teachings of Zeno, Cleanthes, and Chrysippus regarding the international community.

Cicero attempts to connect the universal community of mankind with Roman political thought. The ideal Rome described by Cicero in Scipio consisted of a royal element (Rex), aristocracy (the Senate), and decision-making power held by the plebs and patricians. By presenting this blueprint for an ideal society, Cicero aimed to address the stoic concept of the universal community of mankind. He provided armies, judges, and powers to solve practical problems faced by this universal community, essentially giving it the authority it lacked through Rome. However, the division caused by the notion of Rome makes this endeavor unachievable. Rome was a political entity that created divisions among people.Early Stoics recognized that tradition and politics acted as sources of division among people. They believed that true brotherhood lay not in assimilating individuals into the Roman mainstream, but rather in assimilating Rome into the universal community. However, Cicero, in his lack of understanding, failed to grasp the essence of this universal community of mankind. He believed that the constitution inherited from the ancestors and passed down to them by their fathers was unparalleled in terms of its organization, distribution of power, and respect for authority. In Cicero's view, the Roman commonwealth served as a model for the perfect state, striving to align all aspects of governance with Rome. This suggests that Cicero perceived Rome as the closest entity to embodying such an ideal. Rome, therefore, functioned as a representation and manifestation of the universal community of mankind. The early stoics maintained that any specific community was merely defined by its laws and borders. Consequently, they developed the concept of a universal community since all individuals are subjected to

the natural law imposed by the universe. However, Rome faced a fundamental challenge in realistically imposing this natural law. It could only enforce conventional laws masquerading as natural law. This discrepancy led to the belief in dual citizenship – one being Roman and the other being universal.Cicero believed that Rome was the closest manifestation of the common community of man, demonstrating a clear bias as he forced Roman sentiment on stoic thought. This resulted in a less grandiose interpretation of universal citizenship than what the stoics originally intended. The argument for the ideal state highlights the accommodation of stoic philosophy into Roman society, which further reinforces the validity of imperialistic Roman virtue. The expansion of Rome was believed to be part of the divine plan, aimed at uniting a universal community under Roman society. However, this expansion clashed with early stoic beliefs in indifference, as it contradicted the notion that the natural plan cannot be changed. Nonetheless, Roman expansion was rationalized by accepting it as part of the divine plan. In order for stoicism to be adopted by the Romans, certain compromises had to be made. Cicero recognized this idea of compromise more than the early stoic concept of universal citizenship. Utilizing the composite state that Rome embodied, Cicero attempted to justify Roman conquest by claiming that it would progress and reach its perfect form through its natural development.In the given text, it becomes clear that the wisdom of our ancestors, even in the many institutions they adopted from other states, deserves praise. They improved upon these institutions in our state, surpassing their original origins. This emphasis on Rome as the "perfect form" is a

result of Roman conquests and adoptions. It can also be seen as a rationalization of Roman virtue through stoic philosophy, though it is important to note that Cicero may not have done this intentionally. Cicero offers insights into the decay of states, contradicting stoic principles that prioritize reason and logic over tradition and sentiment. Instead, he chooses to prioritize tradition and Roman sentiment when discussing this decay. However, his opinions are somewhat diminished by Aristotle's views on constitutional decay. By contrasting Aristotle and Cicero on this matter, we can see how Cicero accepts tradition. It is crucial to acknowledge the significant differences between Aristotle's and Cicero's understandings of terms and powers at play. When Aristotle refers to a state's constitution, he is referring to its well-being and takes the word constitution in a context of health. Essentially, the state reflects the well-being of its people.The constitution of states serves as the teachings on a day to day basis, reflecting the well-being of the people. According to Cicero, a good constitution is a legal document established by the people for the common good. However, Aristotle has a different perspective on the forces that determine the course of a deteriorating state. He believes in a behavioral chain of events that can lead a state with a certain constitution (whether good or bad) into another constitution (whether good or bad). Aristotle suggests that there are six possible constitutional forms, all of which can be categorized as either good or bad. Some forms can only arise after others, and all constitutions can be classified based on whether they have one, few, or many citizens. By using a simple chart,

Aristotle demonstrates the correlation between these constitutional forms and their alignment as good or bad based on the number of citizens. Aristole's diagram demonstrates an underlying logic, such as within a tyranny where specific forces and behaviors occur. In a tyranny, the people become carbon copies of their ruler, with the teachings on a day to day basis promoting the values imposed by the ruler. Hence, within society, the populace becomes like "mini-tyrants."The decay or overthrow of a long-established tyrannical power does not result in a polity, but rather reflects the morals being promoted, such as lies, cheating, hypocrisy, and obsequiousness. In such cases, the citizens tend to become what has been promoted: either an oligarchy or a democracy. Aristotle believed that the governmental arrangements directly affected the day-to-day lives of people, causing them to mirror the alignment of their government. However, Cicero had a different rationale and conflicted with early stoic doctrine. Cicero looked to Rome's past to understand the factors that led states to behave in certain ways, but his approach relied too heavily on Roman history as a blueprint without providing comprehensive logic behind his pattern of possible outcomes. According to early Roman history and tradition, there were seven kings, with the last, Lucius Tarquinius Superbus, being a tyrannical rex. After his overthrow, the senate and patricians played a decisive role.The position of the rex was abolished and two consuls were elected annually, thus removing monarchical and tyrannical rule from Rome. This transition led Rome into the era of a republic. Shortly afterwards, the senate gained power and displayed aristocratic traits. Cicero's diagram accurately mirrored these events. According to his diagram, after

the seventh tyrannical rule, there were two potential outcomes: either a democracy or an aristocracy. Cicero reasoned that historically, the senate had gained power, but he also acknowledged the conflicts between the aristocratic party and the popular party in the republic. Cicero understood that power could have been obtained by either the masses or the aristocrats. Notably, Cicero did not prioritize the well-being of the people as Aristotle did. He believed that a good aristocracy could gain control, but also warned that a bad mob could seize power over the government. Unlike Aristotle, Cicero did not argue that the populace reflects the government. As Cicero's argument progresses, his diagram becomes weaker. He believed that a democracy could only be followed by an oligarchy or an aristocracy. Similarly, the first aristocracy could only be followed by an oligarchy. At this point, it becomes difficult to comprehend Cicero's logic. He admits that his logic lacks systematic organization and acknowledges that his Greek counterparts were more persuasive.Cicero, a stoic, valued the past and traditions of Rome, dedicating a significant part of the second book of the commonwealth to this notion. His belief in the Roman tradition influenced his rationalized logic. However, it is important to note that early stoics did not have a patronage in the ancient Roman or Greek sense. They believed in the divine reason present in the universe, adhering to it as god. This created a conflict between the Greek world of intellect and the Roman world of traditional sentiment. Cicero had a dual nature in his beliefs about divinity. He spoke dispassionately about the inability of gods to exist, yet also made grand oratories

to Jupiter and other gods whom he believed guided and helped the state. Cicero provides an example of Roman sentiment on religion through Cotta's words in De Natura Derum: "I will always defend, and always have defended, the traditional Roman religious opinions, rites, and ceremonies, inheriting the view from our forefathers about worshipping the immortal gods."I follow the men who held the office of pontifex maximus, such as Coruncanius, Scipio, and Scaevola, when it comes to questions of religion, rather than Zeno, Cleanthes, or Chrysippus. I have never believed that any aspect of traditional Roman religion should be despised. I am convinced that Romulus, through establishing the auspices, and Numa, through instituting our sacred rites, formed the foundation of our state. It is important to note that Rome was undergoing a crisis of religious belief at this time. Despite often disclaiming Roman divination, Cicero, as a statesman, still held onto his Roman attitudes. In De Legibus, Cicero cautiously expresses his support for the concept of divination. If the gods exist, guide the universe, care for mankind, and can provide us with indications of future events, then there is no reason to deny divination. Greek thought was viewed differently in Roman society, separate from the everyday beliefs and practices of Rome. Rome and Cicero were unwilling to fully embrace the early stoic doctrine, especially considering their religious beliefs. Philosophy was seen by Romans as an imported concept from outside Rome and was not fully accepted. This further demonstrated that politics and tradition divided people. There is a clear distinction between Cicero's philosophical writings and his non-philosophical works and speeches. When it comes to the immortality of

the soul, Cicero aligns more with Plato than with the early stoics.The early stoics taught that the soul and body continue to exist, but not in a capacity that involves reward and punishment. They believed that the soul was united with the universal worldly soul. However, Cicero, who was both a man and a philosopher, may be partially responsible for this deviation from stoic teachings due to his attachment to Roman traditions. Although he was sympathetic towards stoicism, his primary allegiance was to Rome, not stoicism. Because of his commitment to the state, it was not possible for Cicero to fully adopt stoic religious views. The stoic way of life, which emphasizes emotional detachment, appealed to Cicero. Perhaps he believed that embracing stoicism would ease his worldly sorrows, such as the loss of his beloved daughter Tullia. Stoicism may have also provided him with solace during his exile from Rome. However, there were certain behaviors and traits of the early stoics that Cicero, as a Roman and an individual, did not always adhere to. For example, stoics rejected violence and despised personal glory. Cicero, on the other hand, had a different attitude towards these behaviors.The pursuit of fame and success was a common trait among Romans, both in their national and personal endeavors. This characteristic was particularly prominent in Cicero's personality, as he had an unusually strong ambition for the reputation of his family name. The name Cicero itself was relatively unknown in Rome, but Cicero was determined to make it more renowned than names like Scaurus or Catulus. He displayed Roman vanity and prioritized a political life, rather than adhering strictly to the stoic

principles. However, Cicero recognized the value of philosophy and acknowledged that it could guide him in certain aspects of life. Despite not fully agreeing with everything stoicism taught, he sought to embrace what he believed to be worthwhile and true to himself. This eclectic approach sometimes conflicted with his own ideas, leading to a fusion of stoicism and skepticism within his beliefs. Although some of Cicero's contemporaries criticized his enthusiasm for Greek philosophy, he played a significant role in shaping stoicism into its later form known as middle stoicism.Cicero believed in finding a balance between two worlds. He aimed to establish a common understanding between the Roman state and the universal community of mankind through his writings on the composite state. It is incorrect to assume that the romanization of Stoicism was an abuse on early Stoicism. In fact, Cicero made Stoicism more acceptable to Roman society, ensuring its survival. He also addressed the pragmatic problems faced by Stoic topics like the universal community of mankind. Despite not fully embodying the spirit of Stoicism, Cicero sincerely tried to tackle the philosophical dilemmas within it. Unfortunately, his historical bias prevented him from being regarded on the same level as Aristotle. Cicero recognized that the decay of states was a recurring event in history and understood the forces at play. However, his perspective was limited to the Roman Republic of his time. The one aspect of Stoicism that Cicero could not accept was religion, potentially influenced by personal grief over his daughter's death. This led him to deem the Stoic belief in religion unacceptable. As a statesman, Cicero knew that disbelief in Roman religion and tradition would

be unwise as they provided Rome with its strength, intelligence, and determination.Cicero, a prominent Roman philosopher, was careful not to discredit the gods as it would undermine Roman society. However, his belief in stoicism had limitations as he only embraced it as long as it didn't weaken Rome's strength and integrity. While Cicero admired and studied stoicism, he acknowledged that it was a Greek philosophy that the Roman heart could never fully embrace. This may have been his personal attitude to some extent, but it was certainly the belief of his contemporaries. Although evidence suggests that Cicero did not practice stoicism in his daily life pursuits, his pursuit of glory made him less respected as a philosopher, influenced by Roman sentiment. Nonetheless, Cicero developed his own philosophical temperament by incorporating beliefs, attitudes, doctrines, and logic from stoicism and modifying it with Roman traditions. By integrating tradition, patriotism, and Roman virtue, Cicero transformed the landscape of stoic philosophy. In essence, Cicero was a Roman philosopher who sympathized with stoicism but molded it to align with Roman values.Studies in the history of thought from Cicero to Marcus Aurelius (New York: Norton and Company Inc, 1968) 60-61
4 Cicero, Marcus Tullius.On the Commonwealth (New York: The Bobb-Merrill Company Inc, 1929) 151
5 Cicero, Marcus Tullius.On the Commonwealth (New York: The Bobb-Merril Company Inc, 1929) 151-152
6 Cicero, Marcus Tullius.On the Commonwealth (New York: The Bobb-Merril Company Inc, 1929) 169
7 Cicero, Marcus Tullius.On the Commonwealth (New York: The Bobb-Merril Company Inc, 1929) 34, 57, 134, 147, 178
8 M.L. Clarke.The Roman Mind (New York: Norton and Company Inc, 1968) 60-61
9 M.L. Clarke.The Roman Mind (New York: Norton

and Company Inc, 1968) 60
10 (Cicero) M.L. Clarke.The Roman Mind (New York: The Bobb-Merril Company Inc, 1929) 61
11 Cicero, Marcus Tullius.Cicero: On the Good Life (Great Britain: Penguin Classics, 1971) 13-14
M.L. Clarke.The Roman Mind (New York: Norton and Company Inc, 1968) 62
12 M.L Clarke.The Roman Mind (New York: Norton and Company Inc, 1968) 63
Cicero, Marcus Tullius.Cicero: On the Good Life (Great Britain: Penguin Classics , 1971) 16
13 David Taylor.Cicero and Rome (London: MacMillan Education, 1973) 13
14 M.L Clarke.The Roman Mind (New York: Norton and Company Inc, 1968) 64
Category: History