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Prelinguistic Development

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referes mostly to infant vocalizations and infant speech perception - term implies that sound productions at this level are not entirely linguistic because the child does not produce them to achieve desired effect; in this sense, they are not meaningful as later productions - Professionsals working with infants and toddlers should determien whether an infant jjudged to be at risk for a communication disorder is on the proper course of speech and language development

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Infant Speech Production

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pertains to the infant's understanding of speech -The natural development of articulation and phonological skills involves the perception as well as the production of speech sounds - Perception is the process "... by which a person selects, organizes, integrates, tand interprets sensory stimuli he is receiving" Speech perception basically means understanding spoken speech - We can only know about infant speech perception by looking at some kind of a response to sound and pattersn of sound stimuli

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Sound Localization and Auditory Discrimination

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- Reserach has shown that a basic perceptual skill of an infant is sound localization - An eye movement or a head turn toward the source of sound suggests sound localization - Infants as young as 2 to 7 days old turned in the direction of a rattling noise 75% of the time - Auditory perception in infants begins tin utero due to the fact that around the twentieth week of gestation an infant's hearing is well developed - Infants have also been ound to perfer human speech to other noises

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Speech Perception

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- Because infants do not use true words to communicate, how do we know when they have perceived the difference between speech sounds - High-amplitude sucking method - in this method two groups of infants, ages 0 to 5 months, were tested on their ability to discriminate between two groups of speech ounds through the use of sucking on a pacifier - Visually reinforced head turn method - in this method infants are tested of auditory discrimination by localizing sound with a head turn. Infants were presented with a control sound and many experimental sounds. When the experimental sounds were produced the infants would turn their heads toward the sound. - The text found it necessary to note that while some people state infants can discriminate betwwn speech sounds, they prefer to report that infants can be trained, taught, or conditioned to discriminate between speech sounds. - There is a list of information compiled from research in relation to infant speech perception on pages 150-151

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Infant Speech Perception - Innate or Learned Skill?

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- Several studies have been conducted to test theories surrounding infant speech perception skill as innate or learned - one study indicated that an infant's ability to discriminate between non-native sounds deteriorates as they grow older - All of the methods used within the studies in this secftion used operant conditioning and hence the results most forcefully show that infants can be taught to make speech discrimination.

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Infant Speech Production

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- in the not so distant past, true articulation and phonological development was thought to begin with te production of the child's first meaningful words - Therefore, most of the pioneering articulation development studies sampled children between the ages of 2 and 8 YO who were already producing words and sentences - The study of speech skills that infants must acquire before they can actually produce thier first words began to flourish in the late 1970s and early 1980s. - Research since that time has done away with the notion that vocal behaviors prior to the one-word stage are unimportant productions bearing no relationship to the develpment of meaningful speech.

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Infantg Development stages

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- an infant's primary method of communication with the adult world is through crying and fussing - a few months after birth, the infant also begins to produce sequences of consonant-vowel and vowel-consonant combinations with adult-like intonations - Reflexive vocalizations: automatic responses reflecting the physical state of the infant including crying, coughing, burping, and hiccupping - Non-reflexive vocalizations: volunteary productions including cooin, babbling, nad playful screaming and yelling

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Babbling revisited

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- subsequent investigations have provided little support for Jackobson's "discontinuity" hypothesis (no relation to babbling and the first words) and have shown that although there are individual differences, most children continue to bable for approx. 3 to 4 months after the appearance of the first "true" words. - In addition, studies have shown that hte phonological patterns of babbling and meaningful speech are very similar in relation to syllable types and repertoires. - Locke found that infants bable ta fairly small set of sounds. - therefore, it is likely that infant babbling is an important development milestone leading to the development of later articulation and phonological skills.

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Forms of Babbling

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-Babbling begins at approximately 6 to 7 months old and extends until the child's first words appear at age 10 to 13 months.

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Reduplicated Babbling

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initial portion of babbling, usually starting at about 7 months old. - characterized by the reduplication of similar consonant-vowel syllable strings such as [mama], [papa], or [baba]

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non-reduplicated or variegated babbling

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marked as the second portion of babbling - usually begins at approximately 0 to 10 months old -characterized by varying consonant and vowel productions from one syllable string to another

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reduplicated and variegated babbling

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frequently included in a single stage of development called canonical babbling because of the difficulty that often arises in distinguishing the two.

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conversation babble, modulated babble, or jargon

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a form of babbling that frequently overlaps with the early period of meaningful speech characterized by strings of sounds and syllables produced with a variety of stress and intonational patterns - Oiler referred to this infant vocal behavior as (gibberish" although the term jargon is used more often -although children at this stage sound as if they are saying something meaningful, their productions cannot be understood based solely on the articulated sounds and inferences of meaning may need to be made relating to the accompanying testures and pointing. - determination of the order of the vowel like sounds used most often by children at the end of the variegated babbling stage: - although the rank order varied slightly, at least four sounds remained constant across the two studies as the most prevealent: page 158

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Locke's note on three studies

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/h/, /d/, /b/, /m/, /t/, /w/, and /j/ were reported as the most frequently occurring consonant-like sounds

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most frequently produced consonants

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according to place of articulation were labials /b/, /m/, and /w/, alveolars /d/, /n/, and velars /g/ and /ng/

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considering manner of articulation

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oral stops occurred with the highest level of requency, followedc by nasals and glides

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Exploration stage

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the combination of consonant-and vowel- like sounds beginning at age 4 to 6 months

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During later babbling period

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open syllablers or syllables ending in a vowel are the most frequently occurring syllable shapes

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Closed syllables

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(syllables ending in a consonant) thought observed, were limited in the repertoire of the infant at this stage of a development

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Transitioning from Babbling to Meaningful Speech

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unlike previously thought, there is no silent gap between babbling and meaningful speech productions - there is typically an overlap of a few weeks to several months in the use of babbled and meaningful productions -children may use a combination of babbling and meaningful speech in a single utterance

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Child's first meaningful productions

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are frequently labeled as "protowords" also known as vocables, phonetically consistent forms, and quasi words and are thought of as the link between babbling and adult-like speech

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Protowords

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vocalizations absent of a recognizable adult model that are used consistently by the infant - cannot be considered babbling either because they have some phonetic and semantic consistency - are frequently tied to a specific context and are often accompanied by a consistent gesture

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development of Meaningful speech - The first real words

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- use of protowords marks the development of meaningful verbal productions in the speech of young children

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True words

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a stable phonetic form, similar to the adult word form, that is produced consistently by the child in a particular context - during the early stage of true word production, children typically use single syllables or fully or partially reduplicated words -closed syllables occur but are less common

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Progressive idioms or advanced forms

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words that have an advanced pronunciation in comparison to the child's current phonological system or production of other words

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regressive idioms or advanced forms

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the child's static or unchanging pronunciation in words despite his or her more advanced phonological skills

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Development of the sound system

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- around their second birthday, children are more consistent in thier use of single words and are beginning to combine words to make simple phrases - their words become phonetically more systematic

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Single phonemes

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the acquisition of individual speech sounds in preschool and early school-age children has been extensively studies since the late 1930's.

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cross-sectional method

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- researchers select a certain number of children from each of the age groups targeted in the study - an effort is made to obtain a group that will reflect the socio economic distribution of the population as a whole - researchers attempted to excdlude children with a history of a hearing loss or language disorder

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age of acquisition

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a sound that can be correctly produced by 90% (any set number) of the children - at least 5 major cross-sectional studies on the acquisition of individual phonemes to generate norms have been conducted over the last 65 years - because of different methods used, the studies do not always agree on the age at which children master productions - as children get older and lose their deciduous central incisors (a process that usually begins at about 6 years), their productions of /s/ and /z/ may be compromised -stops, nasals, and glides are typically mastered earlier, followed by liquids, fricatives, and affricates

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Range of development - Age of customary production

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the age at which 51% of the children tested produced the sound correctly in at least two position

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Age of mastery

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the age at which 90% of the children produced the sound correctly in all three positions - the presentation of age ranges allows a clinician to see the mastery of speech sounds as a gradual process that may differ from one child to another

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Longitudinal studies

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- set out to find out the acquisition process by following children for an extended period of time - cannot provide norms - all studies highlighted the importance of noting individual variability in the acquisition of speech and language skills

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Consonant Cluster

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-according to research, children master consonant cluster in the inital position of words before the final position of words, respectively - more research needs to be conducted before any conclusive statements can be made about the order of acquisition of consonant clusters

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Vowels

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The acquisition of vowels is another area that has historically been neglected in research due to: - the gelief that children acquire all the English Vowels by the age of 3 - difficulties in transcribing - Studies do support the notion that vowels develop quite early - The exception to this is the mid-central vowels (the two "er") and the rhotic dipthongs /lr/, Er/, /or/, and /ar/

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Common error types

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Note pages 177-178 for the breakdown of 7 common error types

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Development of sound classes

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Nasals, stops, and glides are mastered early and liquids, fricatives, and affricates generally develop later

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Develolpment of Distinctive Features

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articulatory or acoustic characteristics that are present or absent in a particular phoneme or group of phonemes

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Menyuk - developed a ranking order of distinctive features from earliest to latest based on an analysis from an earlier study

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+ Nasal - sounds resonated in the nasal cavity + grave - sounds produced at the very front + voice - sounds produced with bibration of the vocal folds + diffuse - sounds made at the very back + strident - sounds made by forcing the airstream through a small opening resulting in the production of intense noise + continuant - sounds that are made with an incomplete point of constriction, and thus the flow of air is not stopped entirely at any point

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Phonological processes in Normal Development

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- phonological processes are known as systematic sound changes that affect entire classes of sounds and the syllables structure of words. - research and analysis conducted by Grunwell (1982) reveals that most phonological processes are absent by the age of 5 or so.

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Some of the most widespread processes in the normal development of phonological skills include:

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final consonant deletion, cluster reduction, unstressed syllable deletion, stopping, fronting, and liquid gliding

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processes that last the longest include:

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the weak syllable deletion, stopping of "th's", and gliding r to w

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Speech Intelligibility

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How understandable a child is, seems to be directly affected by the development of articulation and phonological skills

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Data, clinical expeience, and parental reports

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support the notion that by 5 years of age, normally developing children are nearly 100% understandable

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Development in the School years: Phonological Awareness

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- A few fricatives, the affricates, and the liquids, in particular, are not mastered by all children until about age 7 or 8 - children at that age level may also have difficulties with some consonant clusters nad multisyllabic words

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Phonological awareness refers to:

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Knowledge of meaningful sounds, or phonemes, in our language and how those sounds blend together to form syllables, words, phrases, and sentences a child's knowledge that words. phrases, and sentences are created from sounds and sound combinations a child's underlying knowledge that words are created from sounds and sound combinations

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Skills believed to indicate the development of phonological awareness

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Rhyming, Alliteration, Phoneme isolation, Sound blending, Syllable identification, sound segmentation, invented spellings

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Rhyming

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The ability to identify words that sound alike or rhyme; the ability to provide a word that rhymes with a presented word; the ability to sort rhyming from non-rhyming

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Alliteration

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the ability to identify words that begin or end with a certain sound

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Phoneme Isolation

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the ability to identify whether a specific sound occurs in the beginning, end, or middle of a word

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Sound blending

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the ability to blend two or more sounds that are temporally separated by a few seconds into a word

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Syllable identification

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the ability to identify the number of syllables in a word through clapping, finger tapping, or verbally stating the number of syllables

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Sound segmentation

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the ability to break down a word into its individual sound components (identification of the number of phonemes in the word)

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Invented spellings

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the ability to spell word phonetically. Such spellings would indicate that the child is aware of the phoneme-grapheme association between spoken and written words. These spellings are phonetic in nature.

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Metalinguistic

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refers to an individiual's ability to analyze, thing about, and talk about language; it is the inherent capacity to use language to analyze language

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Alliteration

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a skill that takes longer to learn

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Correlating with the acquisition of early reading skills

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a child's skill in analyzing words and breaking them down into their phonological components

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Bilingual and Ethnocultural Variables in the Development of Articulation nad Phonological Skills

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Speech Language Pathology has embraced the view that cultural and linguistic diversity is an important consideration in the study of normal and disordered communicative development - the understanding (or lack therof) may mean the difference between diagnosing phonological variations produced by linguistically and culturally diverse children as "different" versus "disordered"

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Primary Responsibility of the SLP

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One of the primary responsibilities of the SLP is to distinguish normal form disordered phonological development in a particular child and to base treatment on this distinction.

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To understand impaired Development

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To understand impaired development, it is essential to also understand general developmental trend across children.

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Speech Perception and Discrimination

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Two major methods of studying speech perception and discrimination in infants- high amplitude sucking and visually reinforced head turn.

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Jakobsons Theory

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proposed that speech sound acquisition follows a universal and innate pattern in which the distinctive features are acquired in a hierarchical manner

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Theory of Natural Phonology

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Proposes that natural phonological processes are innate and reflect limitations of the human speech production mechanism.

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Nonlinear Phonological Theory

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Suggest that phonological acquisition is made possible because the child is born with a set of universal phonological principals or constraints.

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Cognitive Theorists

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Propose that children actively test hypotheses regarding phonological constraints and systems and thus arrive at the adult system.

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Prosodic View

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Suggest that words, not phonemes or features, are the initial learning units.

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Linguistic Theories of Phonological Acquisition

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Are varied but share certain common features that include an assumption of innateness of some basic processes, a rejection of a strong role for environmental variables, assumptions about such cognitive processes as hypothesis testing by infants, and a distinction between underlying phonological representations and phonetic realizations.

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Behavioral View of Speech Development

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is underdeveloped and dated as described in most sources. This view generally believes that learning to speak is not essentially different from learning other kinds of skills and that speech and language behaviors are sensitive to environmental reinforcement contingencies.

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Because phonological theories are:

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varied, controversial, and ever changing, their clinical application is often premature.

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