Chapter 2 Studying Social Life: Sociological Research Methods

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Quantitative Research
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Research that translates the social world into numbers that can be treated mathematically; this type of research often tries to find cause-and-effect relationships.
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Qualitative Research
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Research that works with non numerical data such as texts, field notes, interview transcripts, photographs, and tape recordings; this type of research more often tries to understand how people make sense of their world.
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Scientific Method
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A procedure for acquiring knowledge that emphasizes collecting concrete data through observation and experimentation.
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Literature Review
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a thorough search through previously published studies relevant to a particular group.
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Hypothesis
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A theoretical statement explaining the relationship of two or more phenomena
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Variables
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two or more phenomena that researcher believes related; these will be examined in the experiment.
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Operational Definition
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A clear and precise definition of a variable that facilitates its measurements.
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Correlation
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A relationship between variables in which they change together and may or may not be casual.
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Causation
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A relationship between variables in which a change in one directly produces the change in the other.
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Intervening Variable
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a third variable , sometimes overlooked, that explains the relationship between two other variables.
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Spurious Correlation
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the appearance of causation produced by an intervening variable.
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Paradigm Shift
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a major change in basic assumptions of a particular scientific discipline.
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Ethnography
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naturalistic method based on studying people in their own environment in order to understand the meanings they attribute to their activities; also, the written work that results from the study. Advantages: (1) Study groups that are often overlooked by other methods, (2) Challenge our taken for granted notions about a group we thought we knew, (3) Reshape our stereotypes we hold about others. Disadvantages: (1) Lack of replicability. (2) Lack of representativeness. (3) Respondents are not always forthcoming or truthful.
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Participant Observation
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A methodology associated with ethnography whereby the researcher both observes and becomes a member in a social setting.
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Access
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The process by which an ethnographer gains entry to a field setting.
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Rapport
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a positive relationship often characterized by mutual trust or sympathy
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Field Notes
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detailed notes taken by an ethnographer describing her activities and interactions, which later become the basis of the analysis.
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Autoethnography
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a form of participant observation where the feelings and actions of the researcher become a focal point of the ethnographic study.
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Thick Description
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the presentation of detailed data on interactions and meaning within a cultural context, from the perspective of its members.
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Reflexibility
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How the identity and activities of the researcher influence what is going on in the field setting.
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Grounded Theory
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An inductive method of generating theory from data by creating categories in which to place data and looking for relationships among categories.
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Replicability
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Research that can be repeated , and thus verified by other researcher later.
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Validity
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the accuracy of the question or measurement tool ; the degree to which a researcher is measuring what he thinks he is measuring.
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Representatives
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the degree to which a particular studied group is similar to, or represents, any part of the larger society.
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Bias
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an opinion held by the researcher that might affect the research or analysis.
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Interviews
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person-to-person conversation for the purpose of gathering information by means of questions posed to respondents. Advantages: Allow respondents to speak in their own words. Dispel certain preconceptions. Discover issues that might otherwise been overlooked. Disadvantages: Lack of Representatives, interview of respondents are not always true,
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Respondent
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a participant in a study from whom the researcher seeks to gather information.
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Target Population
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the entire group about which a researcher would like to be able to generalize.
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Sample
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the members of the target population who will actually be studied.
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Focus Group
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a process for interviewing a number of participants together , it also allows for interaction among group members.
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Informed Consent
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a safeguard through which the researcher makes sure the respondents are freely participating and understand the nature of the research.
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Closed-Ended Question
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a question asked of a respondent that imposes a limit on the possible responses.
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Open-Ended Question
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a question asked of a respondent that allows the answer to take whatever form the respondent chooses.
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Leading Questions
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questions that predispose a respondent to answer in a certain way.
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Double-Barreled Questions
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questions that attempt to get multiple issues at once, and tend to receive incomplete or confusing answers
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Life History
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an approach to interviewing that asks for chronological account of the respondent's entire life, or some portion of it.
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Surveys
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research method based on questionnaires that are administered to a sample of respondents selected from a target population.
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Action Research
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a type of research aimed to creating social change, in which the researcher works closely with members of a community who participate in the research process and collaboration
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Likert Scale
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a way of formatting a survey questionnaire so that the respondent can choose an answer along a continuum.
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Negative Questions
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Survey questions that ask respondents what they don't think instead of what they do.
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Pilot Study
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A small-scale study carried out to test the feasibility of a larger one.
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Probability Sampling
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a procedure that results in a sample group that reflects the characteristics of members in the target population
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Simple Random Sample
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a particular type of probability sample in which every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected.
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Representatives Sample
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a sample taken so that findings from members of sample group can be generalized to the larger population; also referred to as stratified sample.
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Response Rate
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the number of percentage of surveys completed by respondents and returned to researchers
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Reliability
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the consistency of a question or measurement tool; the degree to which the same questions will produce similar answers.
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Existing Sources
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materials that have been produced for some other reason but that can be used as data for social research. Advantages: (1) Work with info. researchers could not possibly obtain for themselves. Disadvantages: (1) Answers to questions that original authors did not have in mind. (2) Does not illuminate original sources.
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Unobtrusive Measures
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research methods that rely on existing sources and where the researcher does not intrude upon or disturb the social setting or its subjects.
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Comparative Historical Reasearch
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research that uses existing sources to study relationships among elements of society in various regions and time periods.
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Content Analysis
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a method in which researchers identify and study specific variables or themes that appear in a text, image or media message.
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Experiments
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formal tests of specific variables and effects , performed in a setting where all aspects of the situation can be controlled. Advantages: (1) Manipulate and control social environment researchers to minimize outside interference. (2) High replicability. Disadvantages: (1) Applicable only to certain types of research that can be constructed and measured in a controlled setting. (2) Not very effective for describing more complex processes and interactions.
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Experimental Group
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members of a test group who receive experimental treatment.
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Control Group
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members of a test group who are allowed to continue without intervention so that they can be compared with the experimental group
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Independent Variable
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the factor that is predicted to cause change
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Dependent Variable
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factor that is changed or not by the independent variable.
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Value-Free Sociology
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an ideal whereby researchers identify facts without allowing their own personal beliefs or biases to interfere.
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Basic Research
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the search for knowledge without an agenda or practical goal in mind.
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Applied Research
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gathering knowledge that can be used to create social change.
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Objectivity
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impartiality, the ability to allow the facts to speak for themselves.
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Reactivity
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the tendency of people and and events to react to the process of being studied.
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Hawthorne Effect
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a specific example of reactivity, in which the desired effect is the result not of the independent variable but of the research itself.
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Deception
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the extent to which the participants in a research project are unaware of the project of its goals.
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Confidentiality
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the assurance that no one other than the researcher will know the identity of a respondent.
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Code of Ethics
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ethical guidelines for researchers to consult as they design a project
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Institutional Review Board
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a group of scholars within a university who meet regularly to review and approve the research proposals of their colleagues and make recommendation for how to protect human subjects.
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