question

Condensing Steam Engine

answer

Invented by James Watt. Steam engine w/ rotary motion. The separate condenser generated more power w/ less fuel. Starts industrial revolution.

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Causes of Industrial Revolution (6)

answer

1. New E source: Steam and coal 2. New technology depended laborers and consumers manufacturing 3. Population Growth 4. Mechanization 5. Conquest and Expanded trade and markets 6. Commercialization

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Mechanization

answer

The process of changing from working largely or exclusively by hand or with animals to doing that work with machinery.

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Effects of Industrial Revolution (4)

answer

1. Class tension. Wealth for industrial entrepreneurs. 2. Intensify human labor 3. Fossil fuel age 4. City growth

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19th Century meaning of Industry

answer

an economic system, seemingly independent of humans

question

Why did I.R. start in GBR?

answer

1. Resources 2. Secure empire 3. Control overseas

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Commercialization of Agriculture

answer

1. New techniques and crops 2. Enclosure of fields concentrated property 3. Higher profits invested into industry

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What was the Growing Available Capital?

answer

1. Private wealth and banking institutions grow 2. London is center of trade and creates new enterprises that makes $ transfer easy

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Pursuit of Wealth creates Class Division

answer

1. Nobility are gentleman, invested in talent 2. Merchants 3. Small gentry are entrepreneurs

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Growing Markets (Domestic and Foreign)

answer

1. High consumption b/c trends in elite 2. Domestic Market: Goods move freely, improved transportation, smallness, Parliament encourages commercialization b/c they were businessmen 3. Foreign Market: Exports to colonies creates more consumption. Strong navy protects commercial fleets.

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Cotton Textile Revolutionary Break Throughs

answer

1. Flying Shuttle 2. Spinning Jenny 3. Water Frame 4. Spinning Mule 5. Cotton Gin increases slavery

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Textiles Move to Factories

answer

1. Bigger machines put by water for power 2. Steam mills near coal fields

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Why did clothing Consumption Increase?

answer

1. Cotton price falls, but market expands for more profit 2. Muslins and calicoes appeal to wealthy 3. Light, washable, preferable over wool

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Industry Conditions

answer

1. Debate on working conditions and labor regulation (women/children) 2. Luddite Movement: Men resent machines and pricing scheme

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Production of Iron

answer

1. Coal substitutes wood to make iron (e.g. pig iron) 2. Rising demand for coal leads to more mining. Steam engines make process more efficient. 3. Export to industrializing regions

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Steam Powered Locomotive

answer

1. Stockton-Darlington line: 1st modern railway 2. Liverpool/ Manchester Railway: combo of passengers and goods 3. Transports coal 4. Building railways for other nations creates industrial success

question

Thomas Brassey

answer

English contractor that built railways everywhere

question

Navvies

answer

Immigrant construction workers who lived in encampments and faced xenophobia

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Interconnection of steam engines, textile machines, iron and railways

answer

1. Mechanization increases production of iron and coal to run steam engines. Steam engines allow mining. Steam powered railways allows coal transport. Railways increase demand of iron. 2. Requires engineers and public/private financing. Expanded production and labor

question

Why was Continental Industrialization Gradual? (France, Belgium, Germany)

answer

1. France and Germany's undeveloped transportation system 2. France larger and harder to navigate 3. C Europe divided into principalities w/ tolls 4. Fewer raw materials and rely on wood 5. Dispersed capital was less available. Landholders don't want commercialization of agriculture. 6. Disrupted economy and politics (FR, Napoleon, British cotton ban) 7. Putting-out method

question

Putting-Out Method

answer

industrialists use skilled, inexpensive labor persisted in factories

question

Causes of IR in Continent

answer

1. Removal of capital/labor restraints and mobilized capital (Joint-stock) 2. Population growth in industrial bases 3. Transportation improves thru construction allows new markets 4. Gov't support 5. Public support: Trained to develop industrial technology

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Joint-Stock

answer

Could sell bonds to and take deposits from individuals and smaller companies; offer capital in long term, low interest loans to aspiring entrepreneurs

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The Credit Mobilier

answer

Joint stock investment bank that assembled enough capital to finance global enterprises

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Specifics of Gov't Support

answer

1. Prussia/France subsidies to private companies that built railroads, start own control 2. Prussia operates own mines 3. Limited Liability laws

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The Canutes

answer

French worker insurrection: Moved to Lyon b/c growth of silk industry. Worked laboriously, then revolted

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Major Industrial Powers. Why?

answer

1. Britain (-1850) 2. France, Germany, Belgium and USA (1850-1870) 3. Britain grew slower; Continent gained from changes in transport, commerce and gov't

question

Consequences of Spread of Railway

answer

*Free Movement of Goods 1. International monetary unions 2. International waterway restrictions removed 3. Free trade: Guild restrictions and control removed 4. Usury allowed 5. Gov't mining regulation removed, so entrepreneurs develop themselves 6. California gold increased credit and investment banks

question

First Phase of IR

answer

Cheaper/better clothes, metals and faster travel

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Second Phase of IR

answer

1. Transatlantic cable and telephone 2. New chemicals, medicines 3. New sources of E: electricity and oil 4. Automobile Innovations: ICE and removable tire

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Internal Combustion Engine

answer

Carl Benz and Gottlieb Daimler: small, efficient and useful

question

19th Eastern European Economic Development

answer

1. Agriculture based on serfdom, until peasant protest. Export to W 2. Bohemia: textile, cotton, iron 3. Moscow: textile, mills, 4. Continued in tiny workshops

question

Industrial Powers of the 1870s

answer

1. GBR, France, Germany, Italy, Netherlands, Switzerland 2. Austria 3. Russia, Spain, Bulgaria, Greece, Hungary, Romania, Serbia ***Agriculture still largest. Most work in tiny workshops/home.

question

How does Europe stay an industrial super power?

answer

*Financial Leverage 1. Control debts of non-europeans 2. Supplied loans 3. Attempts at industrialization were pressured 4. Local elites made trade agreements w/ W gov't or groups for profit 5. Social changes in other empires made them vulnerable (Conquest when no agreement)

question

Why does Britain import more agriculture by the end of the 19th?

answer

*Industry becomes interdependent trade 1. Commercialization of agriculture elsewhere 2. New transportation, finance and communication made it easier (clipper ships) 3. Calcutta: Indian city; center for cotton, jute, opium and tea trade in British Empire

question

How does industrialization impact population growth?

answer

*Overall doubles, cities triple 1. Same mortality rate, but rural manufacturing lets people marry before inheriting land, which leads to bigger families and more fertile people

question

Country-side conditions (Majority!) in 1st half of 19th:

answer

1. Most work by hand 2. Subsistence living 3. Rising population pressures land 4. Small holdings and debt 5. Dependent on markets 6. Mostly peasants fled Europe, gov't supported b/c overcrowding

question

The Great Famine

answer

1. Fungus hits potatoes 3 times, leading to starvation and migration 2. Ireland: Overpopulation and poverty. Bad conditions

question

Why was gov't involved w/ commercial agriculture?

answer

1. Made land transfer easier, eliminated small farms, and created larger estates 2. Spain: Liberal regime encouraged free transfer of land, but Absolutism repealed it 3. Russian landowners possess millions of acres

question

Impact of serfdom to agriculture and people:

answer

1. Difficult for land transfer and commercializing agriculture 2. Russia: Prevented improved farming techniques 3. France: French Revolution leads to land inheritance and peasants stay on farms w/ sustainable life

question

Impact of Industrialization to the countryside:

answer

1. Gov't involvement increases (e.g. taxes and drafting) 2. Improved communication networks gave awareness 3. Competition from factories creates lower piece rates and less work. Falling income 4. Countryside becomes producers in small shops or homes 5. Political violence (gov't failure)

question

Swing Riots

answer

S England; Disguised farmers and laborers burned barns, protesting against machines. Leader: Captain Swing

question

SW French Riots

answer

Disguised peasants attacked authorities who barred collection of forest wood for furnaces

question

Russian Riots

answer

Serf uprisings from bad harvests and exploitation

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City conditions:

answer

1. Growth of cities tripled/overcrowded esp. in mining, manufacturing, railway areas (London, Paris, Berlin) 2. Unhealthy, unhygienic 3. Strained medieval infrastructures 4. Working people lived in temporary lodging houses or basement/attics. No lighting or sewers. Trash everywhere.

question

Gov't Legislation to Prevent Epidemics:

answer

1.Tore cities down to improve sanitation w/ water and drainage 2. Gradual change in 1850, still terrible hygienic conditions (Paris is one of the best)

question

Environmental Changes in Cities during the 19th century:

answer

1. Wood to coal led to air pollution and tuberculosis/bronchitis (The Ruhr) 2. Human waste and pollution led to water borne disease (the Rhine) 3. Begin purification. London and Paris start sewage systems. Conditions worsen until mid-20

question

Shock cities

answer

An urban place experiencing infrastructural challenges related to massive and rapid urbanization.

question

The Social Question

answer

Radical/reformer groups categorized the issues of criminality, water supply, sewer, prostitution, tuberculosis/cholera, alcoholism, wet nursing, wages, unemployment. Background to revolutions of 1848.

question

Governmental solutions to the Social Question

answer

police force, public health, sewers/new water supplies, inoculations, elementary schools, Factory Acts, poor laws, new urban regulation and city planning

question

Factory Acts

answer

regulate work hours

question

Poor laws

answer

outlines conditions of receiving relief

question

Revolutionary writers inspired by social sciences:

answer

1. Victor Hugo 2. Charles Dickens 3. Honore de Balzac 1 and 2 sympathetic towards poor and child labor, but Balzac opposite, seeing corruption

question

Les Miserables

answer

Hugo; sewers of Paris metaphor for condition of urban life

question

Human Comedy

answer

Balzac; 95 stories on ruthless men and analysis of romantic relationships. Prostitution metaphor for materialism and desperation

question

Prostitution in cities:

answer

1. Impersonal nature of exchange for mercenary intentions 2. Represents urban economy 3. Vienna, Paris, London

question

Prostitution Hierarchies

answer

1. Entrepreneurs of lodging houses 2. pimps and "fancy men" 3. Prima donnas. 4. Young women arrive in cities and are exploited during unemployment. Many impregnated and abandoned, faced rape by employers. Unlikely to get "respectable" jobs, so become prostitutes in male working-class neighborhoods

question

Prima Donna

answer

Courtesans who enjoyed protection of rich, upper middle class lovers. Wealth allowed higher status.

question

La Dame aux Camelias and La traviata

answer

Duma and Verdi on prim donnas

question

Novels and art about the middle class:

answer

1. Plots on how old hierarchies are now based on wealth and social class. Money over birth, social mobility 2. Rising middle class 3. Dickens, Thackeray, Hugo, Balzac, Fontane

question

Who were the middle classes (AKA bourgeoisie)?

answer

1. Shopkeepers, lawyers, doctors, factory owners 2. white-collared clerks and office workers

question

Movement of Classes:

answer

1. Upward mobility needs education (luxury for working-class) b/c examination system for jobs. Few from working to middle, most middle to middle movement 2. Middle to Aristocratic was difficult except for Britain: sons of upper middle sent to school could get political jobs

question

William Gladstone

answer

Prime minister that attended school and married to aristocratic family

question

Self Help by Samuel Smiles

answer

Encouraged belief that upward movement was possible thru intelligence and work. Also discusses middle-class respectability.

question

Middle Class Respectability

answer

1. New sense of self-understanding of the world & identity 2. Argument that the middle class constituted a new and deserving social elite, superior to common people yet different than the older aristocracy. They are the future. 3. Values: Financial independence, avoiding gambling and debt and modesty. Merit/character over privilege (hard-work).

question

Private life of the middle class: The Well Governed Household

answer

1. Mobility thru marriage 2. Family for practicality and continuity. Wife manages accounts, in-laws provide money, etc.

question

Separate Sphere

answer

Subordination of wife. Tradition of paternal authority. Emphasized that men and women are complements w/ "spiritual equality".

question

Legacy of Napoleonic Code on Women

answer

*Woman's incompetence 1. Britain: woman's property rights to husband 2. France and Austria: unmarried women's "protection" from fathers

question

How does middle-class see themselves different from aristocracy and commoners?

answer

Marriages not for power and division of responsibilities

question

Cult of Domesticity (victorian thought)

answer

Middle class woman have responsibility to be good wife/mom

question

Angel in the House (victorian ideal)

answer

1. Kept household functioning, keep track of servants, made linens/clothes, cooked, did laundry and cleaning. Morally educated children. 2. Varying wealth meant varying workload. Servants, governesses and nannies represent status/wealth.

question

Why did reassessment of femininity happen?

answer

Moralize society and prevent disorder

question

Opportunities for women outside of home:

answer

1. Few respectable jobs, unmarried could be governess 2. Middle class wives volunteer or campaign for social reform b/c of convictions

question

Social Reforms by Women

answer

Influence abolition of slave trade w/ Protestantism. Want to improve impoverished lives in school, hospitals, prostitution and factories

question

Florence Nightingale

answer

Nursed British soldiers during Crimean war. Defied woman's proper sphere.

question

George Sand

answer

Female novelist who dressed like a man and smoked cigars. Tales of independent women.

question

Why was Queen Elizabeth successful?

answer

Her public image reflected feminine ideals of domesticity. She embodied traits important to middle class.

question

How does the reassessment of femininity affect masculinity?

answer

Men wear practical clothing unlike "effeminate" aristocrats from revolutionary periods

question

What was Victorian sexuality like? Why?

answer

1. Prudish Etiquette, to the point where prohibitions were satirized. 2. Beliefs come from "separate spheres"

question

What is the science behind separate spheres?

answer

1. specific characteristics were inherent to each sex b/c of different bodies (gender inequality) 2. Women are passionless/male sexual desire is natural, so prostitution legalized

question

Auguste Comte

answer

French social thinker against female equality b/c they are unsuited for higher education

question

William Acton

answer

British doctor. Believed Women are passionless, prude is good, working-class women less feminine

question

Are these actual beliefs of victorians?

answer

Doctors' and sociologists' opinions didn't accurately depict lives, nor did the writings of the time.

question

How did contraception affect lives?

answer

1. Ineffective or dangerous methods (doctors believe most fertile around period) 2. Frequent pregnancy & maternal mortality 3. Woman's life deeply affected by pregnancy no matter class

question

Public opposition to Working Women

answer

1. Promiscuity of mixing sexes 2. 19th writers wrote of economic/moral horrors as result of female labor 3. Labor movement wants exclusion of women from workplace

question

Houses and Furnishings of Mid-Class: (what were they like & what does it do?)

answer

1. Solid build and decorated, large, elegant furniture, servants. Symbol of wealth 2. Villas in provincial cities. Apartments by wealth. Townhouses 3. Leads to similar aspirations & common values in the middle class despite varying income

question

Material Security

answer

The availability and access to the material resources on which economies depend, as well as the ability to cope with volatility, increasing scarcity and rising prices.

question

What happens to middle class as cities grow?

answer

1. Middle class move away from industrialization (W) to avoid pollution 2. Public buildings in the center were symbols of prosperity 3. Civic leaders in mid-class has increasing power and provide landmark buildings as cultural symbol

question

Suburb Changes:

answer

1. Railways make trips popular, creating new resorts and entertainment. 2. Tourism in 20th 3. Middle-Class leisures

question

Hierarchy of Working Class

answer

Divided by skill, wage, gender & workplace. Movement possible w/ education (luxury); downward move b/c technology

question

Conditions of working-class housing

answer

1. Older towns: Apartments (1 room/family) 2. Newer: Row of houses close to factory (crowded) 3. Unventilated and poorly lit 4. No room for gardens

question

Working class' "survival network":

answer

1. Wives work for wages, house, feed, clothe and chores 2. Meager gardens unreliable, so city markets. Sell cheap, but bad quality

question

Industrialization's effect on women's work

answer

1. Makes women's work more visible. New processes changed ideas on what jobs were appropriate for women. 2. More women work (preferred) in factories and had to balance w/ domestic responsibilities

question

Majority of working women: Sweatshops

answer

Low wages by piece, working at home in small workshops

question

Opportunities for just arrived, single women

answer

1. Domestic service: low wages and sexual relationships, but provide room 2. Marriage (unlikely) 3. Boardinghouse rental (prostitution) 4. Living w/ someone

question

What is working-class sexuality like? And why?

answer

Greater promiscuity than mid-class b/c poverty, no privacy and vulnerability

question

Why does illegitimacy rise in the working-class?

answer

1. More mobility/urbanization created weaker family ties and more opportunities/ vulnerabilities 2. Premarital sex not as controlled in commercialized cities. Economic uncertainty makes marriage promise based on expectation. Temporary relationships w/ children create poverty and abandonment

question

19th Writers on Dangerous Classes:

answer

Blames promiscuity on moral weakness of working class or changes from industrialization. Exaggerated collapse of family and traditional morality

question

Working-class respectability:

answer

Girls work, daughters care for younger sibs and earn, sexuality is a reality, midwives help desperate pregnant girls, marriage leads to respectability

question

Industrial demands for Working-Class

answer

1. Factories deny skilled workers their craft, rids protection of guilds & prevent organizing by legislation in France, Germany and Britain 2. Workers vulnerable to powerful employers 3. Long hours (12-14), unventilated textile mills, lint particles in lungs, unfenced/dangerous machines 4. Child Risks in machines and mines 5. New routines *Common experience

question

How did factories change the old way of working?

answer

1. controlled by clock 2. Increase production by specializing process

question

Economic situation of working class during Industrialization:

answer

1. Unemployment, irregular wages, unstable markets, agricultural depression, food prices fluctuate, sickness, accidents & family probs 2. Crisis years of 1840s

question

Crisis Years of 1840s

answer

1. Britain: ½ workers unemployed 2. 85,000 Parisians on relief 3. Survive by small jobs, pawning and getting credit from local shops

question

What are the consequences of the working classes' vulnerability?

answer

1. Self-help societies, fraternal associations and socialist organizations 2. Explosion

question

Working-Class Consciousness

answer

Working class see themselves different from middle class b/c changes in workplace and social segregation

question

Consequences of Industrialization (Summary)

answer

1. Changed nature of work 2.Changed familial structure and private lives 3. New forms of wealth and poverty 4. Difference btwn social groups in terms of class (class society/new identities)

Chapter 19: The Industrial Revolution and Nineteenth Century Society – Flashcards

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