Chapter 12: Stress, Coping, and Health – Flashcards

is defined in the text as any circumstances that threaten or are perceived to threaten one's well being and that thereby tax one's coping ability. Researchers have discovered that minor stresses (Lazarus - daily hassles) like moving, experiencing changes in household responsibilities, etc. can add up to be as stressful as a major traumatic event like a divorce or disaster; the cumulative nature of stress. The experience of feeling stressed depends largely on cognitive processes; going on a new date is exciting for some, terrifying for others. People's appraisals of events are very subjective and influence the effect of the event.

Frustration Conflict Life changes Pressure

which occurs in any situation in which the pursuit of some goal is thwarted. Ex. traffic jams.

occurs when two or more incompatible motivations or behavioral impulses compete for expression. Three types of conflict have been studied extensively: approach-approach - when a person has a choice between two attractive goals avoidance-avoidance—when a person has a choice between two undesirable alternatives approach-avoidance - when a choice must be made about whether to pursue a single goal that has both attractive and unattractive aspects. This results in vacillation, or going back and forth: rats actually run up and down a ramp in this type conflict.

are any noticeable alterations in one's living circumstances that require readjustment. Holmes and Rahe (1967) developed the Social Readjustment Rating Scale to measure life change as a form of stress, giving higher points (life change units) for more stressful events.

involves expectations or demands that one behave in a certain way, pressure to perform or to comply.

are multidimensional, including emotional, psychological, and behavioral realms. Emotions commonly elicited by stress are listed on the slide.

self-blame leads to guilt, helplessness to sadness, etc. Positive emotions may also occur during periods of stress, with positive emotions experienced while under duress having adaptive significance, promoting creativity and flexibility in problem solving, facilitating the processing of important information about oneself, and reducing the adverse physiological effects of stress. High emotion can sometimes negatively influence task performance, more so for highly complex tasks and less so for simple ones (the inverted-u-hypothesis).

Physiological effect of stress discovered by Walter Cannon (1932). The FF response is a physiological reaction to threat in which the autonomic nervous system (ANS) mobilizes the organism for attacking (fight) or fleeing (flight) an enemy. The fight-or-flight response is adaptive if one is faced with a predator; however, modern stressors are more long term (the checkbook).

a theory about how stress reactions occur Hans Selye began studying stress in the 1930s to determine the effects of these chronic stressors. He used an animal model, exposing them to both physical and psychological stressors to determine effects, which were nonspecific. That is, the reactions did not relate to the type of stress. The alarm stage occurs when an organism recognizes a threat and mobilizes resources - essentially enters the FF response. The resistance stage occurs when the stress is prolonged. This is a period when physiological arousal stabilizes but is still above baseline, as the organism copes with the stressor. The exhaustion stage occurs when the body's resources are depleted. Selye believed that this is where diseases of adaptation come in.

refers to active efforts to master, reduce, or tolerate the demands created by stress. These may involve giving up and blaming oneself (learned helplessness - passive behavior produced by exposure to unavoidable aversive events), striking out at others aggressively (usually the result of frustration, as in Dollard's frustration-aggression hypothesis), self-indulgement (eating, drinking, smoking, shopping), defensive coping (erecting defense mechanisms), constructive coping (realistically appraising situations and confronting problems directly).

Now we know that stress contributes to a diverse array of other diseases once thought to be completely physiologically based and using the term psychosomatic disease as a separate category has fallen into disuse. Heart disease accounts for nearly one-third of the deaths in the U.S. each year, and atherosclerosis, or gradual narrowing of the coronary arteries, is the principle cause of CHD. Risk factors for CHD include smoking, lack of exercise, high cholesterol levels, and high blood pressure. Recently, researchers have shown that inflammation may contribute to atherosclerosis, as well. Personality factors have been linked to risk for coronary heart disease. These personality characteristics have been collectively labeled Type A personality and include three main elements (listed on the slide). The hostility factor has been indicated as the most important predictor in this cluster of behaviors. Emotional reactions can trigger cardiac symptoms in patients with stable coronary disease. Depressive disorders may also be a risk factor for heart disease, with some studies showing that the risk of CHD is doubled with depression. Stress has also been shown to decrease the immune response, the body's defensive reaction to invasion by bacteria, viral agents, or other foreign substances, and decreasing white blood cells called lymphocytes. The featured study in the text explores the effects of stress on contracting the common cold.

Many factors moderate the effects of stress on illness, and individual differences in impact appear to be related to these moderating variables. Social support, or the various types of aid and succor provided by members of one's social network, appear to decrease the negative impact of stress. Having an optimistic style also appears to lead to more effective coping with stress, while pessimistic styles have been related to passive coping and poor health practices. Conscientiousness also appears to be related to increased longevity, possibly because being conscientious leads to better health habits. Finally, physiological factors, such as cardiovascular reactivity to stress, appear to play a role in how significant the impact of stress is on an individual. However, it is helpful to keep in mind that the effects of stress are not entirely negative. Recent research suggests that stress can promote personal growth or self-improvement, forcing people to develop new skills, reevaluate priorities, learn new insights, and acquire new strengths. Conquering a stressful challenge may also lead to improved coping abilities and increases in self-esteem.

Self-destructive behavior is surprisingly common. Take smoking, for example. A 25 year old male who smokes two packs a day has an estimated life expectancy 8.3 years shorter than that of a similar nonsmoker. Health risks decline quickly for those who give up smoking, but quitting is difficult and relapse rates are high. Poor nutritional habits and lack of exercise have been linked to heart disease, hypertension, and cancer, among other things. Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS) is clearly influenced by behavior. AIDS is transmitted through person-to-person contact involving the exchange of bodily fluids, primarily semen and blood. Misconceptions about AIDS are common, either overestimations or underestimations of risk. Many young heterosexuals downplay their risk for HIV, causing them not to adopt the behavioral practices that minimize risk. So why do people engage in health impairing behavior? Most of these develop gradually and often involve pleasant activities. Risks lie in the distant future, and people tend to underestimate risks that apply to them personally.

Many reactions to illness are not conducive to health. For example, many people ignore physical symptoms, resulting in delay in medical treatment. Even when they seek medical help, communication between patients and health care providers is not always honest or efficient. Noncompliance with medical advice is a serious issue. Noncompliance is more likely if instructions are hard to understand, when they are difficult to follow, and when patients are unhappy with their doctor.