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The ____________________________ extends from about age 7 to 11. During this period, thought is more logical, flexible, and organized than it was during early childhood.

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Concrete Operational Stage

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The ability to pass ____________________ provides clear evidence of ___________________—mental actions that obey logical rules.

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Conservation tasks, operations

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Children become capable of _____________________, focusing on several aspects of a problem at once and relating them.

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decentration

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They also demonstrate _______________________, the capacity to think through a series of steps and then mentally reverse direction, returning to the starting point.

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reversibility

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Between ages 7 and 10, children pass Piaget's _____________________________.

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class inclusion problem

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School-age children develop the ability to order items along a quantitative dimension, such as length or weight, which is called _____________________.

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seriation

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They can also seriate mentally, an ability called ______________________________.

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transitive inference

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Piaget found that school-age children's understanding of space is more accurate than that of preschoolers. Children's mental representations of familiar, large-scale spaces, such as their school or neighborhood, are called _____________________________.

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cognitive maps

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Preschoolers and young school-age children include ____ on their maps, but their arrangement is not always accurate.

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landmarks

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Children think in an organized, logical fashion only when dealing with __________________ information they can perceive directly. Their mental operations work poorly when applied to abstract ideas

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Concrete

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Brain development contributes to two basic changes in information processing: ____________________________and ______________________________(the ability to control distracting stimuli).

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increase in information-processing capacity and gains in cognitive inhibition

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(1) ____________________________: Preschoolers fail to produce attentional strategies when they could be helpful.

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Production Deficiency

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(2) ____________________________: Young elementary school children may produce strategies but fail to control, or execute, them effectively.

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Control deficiency

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(3) ____________________________: Slightly older children execute strategies consistently, but their performance does not improve.

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utilization deficiency

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(4) ____________________________: By the mid-elementary school years, children use strategies consistently, and performance improves.

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Effective strategy use

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_________________________improve during the school years, along with attention.

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Memory Strategies

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________________________ involves repeating information to oneself.

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Rehearsal

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________________________is grouping related items together.

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Organization

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By the end of middle childhood, children start to use ________________________—a strategy that involves creating a relationship, or shared meaning, between two or more pieces of information that belong to different categories.

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Elaboration

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Organization and elaboration permit children to retain and _____________________ more information.

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retrieve

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During middle childhood, children's long-term knowledge base grows larger and becomes organized into increasingly _____________________, _________________________ structured networks. This rapid growth of knowledge helps children use strategies and remember.

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elaborate, hierarchically

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Children who are expert in a particular area can organize information in that area with little ___________________ and can devote more working-memory resources to using recalled information to solve problems.

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effort

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Cross-cultural research indicates that people who have no _______________________________ do not use or benefit from instruction in memory strategies.

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formal schooling

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____________________________________ get so much practice using memory strategies that they do not refine other memory techniques that rely on cues available in everyday life, such as spatial location.

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Western Children

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Children's ________________________, or set of beliefs about mental activities, becomes more refined during middle childhood as children develop _________________________—an awareness of thought.

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theory of mind, metacognition

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Unlike preschoolers, older children view the mind as an _______________________, constructive agent that selects and transforms information.

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active

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School-age children know that doing well on a task depends on focusing ____________________; with age, they become increasingly aware of effective memory strategies and why they work.

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...

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School-age children are not yet good at ___________________________, the process of continuously monitoring progress toward a goal, checking outcomes, and redirecting unsuccessful efforts.

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cognitive self-regulation

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Monitoring learning outcomes is cognitively demanding and requires constant evaluation. Throughout elementary and secondary school, ___________________________ predicts academic success.

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self regulation

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Children who acquire effective self-regulatory skills develop a sense of academic self-efficacy, or _____________________ in their own ability.

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confidence

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_______________________________—the ability to reflect on and manipulate the sound structure of spoken language— facilitates children's reading progress.

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phonological awareness

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Advocates of a ________________________________ argued for a strategy that keeps text in its complete form, to keep reading meaningful.

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whole-language approach

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Those who favored a _________________________ believed that children should first be coached on phonics—the basic rules for translating written symbols into sounds.

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phonics approach

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Research shows that children learn best with a mixture of ________________________________approaches.

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both

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In Asian countries, students receive a ____________________ of supports for acquiring mathematical knowledge and often excel at math computation and reasoning.

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variety

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Around age 6, IQ becomes more ________________ and _________________ moderately well with academic achievement.

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stable, correlates

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Most intelligence tests provide an overall score (the IQ), which represents ___________________________, or reasoning ability, and separate scores measuring specific mental abilities.

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general intelligence

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Intelligence is a collection of many ______________________________, not all of which are included on tests.

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capacities

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The statistical technique called ____________________________ determines which sets of items on an intelligence test cluster together into factors, each representing a specific ability.

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factor analysis

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_______________________________ permit large numbers of pupils to be tested at once and are useful for identifying children who require more extensive evaluation with individually administered tests.

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group-administered tests

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The ________________________________________, is for individuals from age 2 to adulthood. a. It assesses general intelligence as well as five intellectual factors:

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Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scales, 5th Edition 1. General Knowledge 2. Quantitative Reasoning 3. Visual-Spatial Processing 4. Working Memory 5. Basic Information Processing

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The _________________________________________(WISC-IV) is widely used for 6- through 16-year-olds; the Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence-Revised (WPPSI-III) is appropriate for children 2 years 6 months through 7 years 3 months.

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Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children - IV

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Some researchers, combining the mental-testing and information-processing approaches to defining intelligence, conduct _______________________________ of children's test scores by looking for relationships between aspects of information processing and children's IQs.

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componential anaylses

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Gardner's _________________________________ defines intelligence in terms of eight distinct sets of processing operations that permit individuals to engage in a wide range of culturally valued activities.

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theory of multiple intelligences

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Gardner argues that each intelligence has a unique ____________________ basis and a distinct course of development, but a lengthy process of education is required to transform any raw potential into a mature social role.

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biological

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Gardner's theory highlights several intelligences not tapped by IQ scores, including the set of capacities for dealing with people and understanding oneself, known as ________________________________.

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emotional intelligence

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The gap between middle-SES and low-SES children, about ________points, accounts for some, but not all, of the ethnic IQ differences.

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9

question

Researchers estimate that about half the differences in IQ among children can be traced to their ________________ makeup.

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genetic

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Adoption research confirms that _______________ and _________________ contribute jointly to IQ scores. Research shows that African-American children adopted into economically well-off white homes during the first year of life scored 20 to 30 points higher on intelligence tests than children growing up in low-income black communities.

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heredity, environment

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Debate continues over whether ethnic differences in IQ occur when a test samples knowledge and skills that not all groups of children have had equal opportunity to learn, leading to ____________________________

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test bias

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Ethnic minority families often foster unique _________________ skills that do not fit the expectations of most classrooms and testing situations.

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language

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Efforts to devise culturally relevant testing procedures include the use of _________________________, an innovation consistent with Vygotsky's zone of proximal development, in which the adult introduces purposeful teaching into the testing situation to see what the child can attain with social support

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dynamic assessment

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During the elementary school years, recognition vocabulary increases fourfold, eventually exceeding ____________ words.

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40,000

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School-age children grasp the multiple meanings of some words, which leads them to the understanding of ________________ and to the use of ____________________ and puns.

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metaphors, riddles

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Use of the _______________ voice expands during middle childhood, and children acquire an advanced understanding of infinitive phrases.

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passive

question

Appreciation of subtle grammatical distinctions is supported by ________________________ awareness.

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metalinguistic

question

Improvements in ____________________, the communicative side of language, occur in middle childhood.

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pragmatics

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Children become better at adapting to the needs of listeners in challenging ____________________ situations.

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communicative

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Small class size is beneficial because teachers in small classes spend less time ___________________ and more time giving _______________________ attention.

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disciplining, individual

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Students describe good teachers as caring, helpful, and stimulating, but many U.S. teachers emphasize ___________________________ over higher-level thinking.

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rote, repetitive skill

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_____________________________________ occur when children start to live up to teachers' positive or negative attitudes toward them.

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Educational self-fulfilling prophecy

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Assignment of pupils to _________________________, in which children of similar achievement levels are taught together, is a potent source of self-fulfilling prophecies.

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homogeneous groups

question

Magnet schools foster ___________________________ contexts, thereby reducing achievement disparities between SES and ethnic minority groups.

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less segregated

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For heterogeneous grouping to work, children need training in ___________________________—resolving differences of opinion, sharing responsibility, and working toward common goals.

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cooperative learning

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Sensitivity to the sounds, rhythms, and meaning of words and the functions of language

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Linguistic Intelligence

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Sensitivity to, and capacity to direct, logical or numerical patterns; ability to handle long chains of logical reasoning

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Logico-Mathematical Intelligence

question

Ability to produce and appreciate pitch, rhythm (or melody) and aesthetic quality of the forms of musical expressiveness

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Musical Intelligence

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Ability to perceive the visual-spatial world accurately, to perform transformations on those perceptions, and to re-create aspects of visual experience in the absence of relevant stimuli.

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Spatial Intelligence

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Ability to use the body skillfully for expressive as well as goal-directed purposes; ability to handle objects skillfully.

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Bodily-kinesthetic

question

Ability to recognize and classify all varieties of animals, minerals, and plants

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Naturalist Intelligence

question

Ability to detect and respond appropriately to the moods, temperaments, motivations, and intentions of others

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Interpersonal Intelligence

question

Ability to discriminate complex inner feelings and to use them to guide one' own behavior; knowledge of one's own strengths, weaknesses, desires, and intelligences

answer

Intrapersonal Intelligence

Chapter 12 Lecture Outline – Flashcards

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