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epiphyses

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growth centers in which cartilage hardens into bone. between ages 2 and 6, approximately 45 new ephiphyses emerge in various parts of the skeleton. Good measure of chronological age.

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skeletal age

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x-rays of children's bodies enables doctors to estimate children's progress toward physical maturity.

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synaptic pruning

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neurons that are seldom stimulated lose their connective fibers, and the number of synapeses is reduced.

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dominant cerebral hemisphere

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handedness (left or right) reflects the greater capacity of one of the brain to carry out skilled motor activity.

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ambidextrous

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dominance with both hands

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reticular formation

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a structure in the brain stem that maintains alertness and consciousness.

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hippocampus

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an inner brain structure which plays a vital role in memory and in images of space that help us find our way.

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cerebellum

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a structure that aids in balance and control of body movement

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amygdala

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located in the inner brain, plays a central role in processing emotional information.

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corpus callosum

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a large bundle of fibers connecting the two cerebral hemispheres.

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pituitary gland

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located at the base of the brain, plays a critical role by releasing two hormones that induce growth

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Growth hormone (GH)

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is necessary from birth on for development of almost all body tissues. GH acts directly but also accomplishes its task with the help of an intermediary(insulin-like growth factor 1)

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thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)

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prompts the thyroid gland in the neck to release thyroxine, which is necessary for brain development and for GH to have its full impact on body size.

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psychosocial dwarfism

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a growth disorder that appears between ages 2 and 15. typical characteristics include decreased GH secretion, very short stature, immature skeletal age, and serious adjustment problems which help distinguish psychosocial dwarfism from normal shortness.

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Insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1)

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GH stimulates the liver and epihyses of the skeleton to release IGF-1 which triggers cell duplication throughout the body, especially the skeleton, muscles, nerves, bone marrow, liver, kidney, skin and lungs.

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sleep terrors

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affect 3% of young children, in these panic-stricken arousals from deep sleep, the child may scream, thrash, speak incohorently, show a sharp rise in heart rate and breathing, and initially be unresponsive to parents' attempts to comfort. tends to run in families, but can also be triggered by stress or extreme fatigue.

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nightmares

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are common, half of 3 to 6 year olds experience them from time to time.

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sleepwalking

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about 4% of children are frequent sleepwalkers, who are unaware of their wanderings during the night. gently awawkening and returning the child to bed helps avoid self-injury. tends to run in families, suggesting a genetic influence.

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oral rehydration therapy (ORT)

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a treatment for diarrhea in which sick children are given a glucose, salt and water solution that quickly replaces fluids the body loses. Since 1990, public health workers have taught nearly half the families in the developing world how to administer ORT.

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preoperational stage

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Piaget's stage which spans the years 2 to 7, the most obvious change is an extraordinary increase in representational, or symbolic activity.

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sociodramatic play

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the make believe with others that is under way by the end of the second year, and that increases rapidly in complexity during early childhood.

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dual representation

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viewing a symbolic object as both an object in its own right and a symbol

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egocentrism

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for piaget, the most fundamental deficiency of preoperational thinking. it's a failure to distinguish the symbolic viewpoints of others from one's own.

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animistic thinking

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the belief that inanimate objects have lifelike qualities, such as thoughts, wishes, feelings and intentions.

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conservation

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refers to the idea that certain physical characteritics of object's remain the same, even when their outward appearance changes.

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centration

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preoperational children's tendancy to focus on one aspect of a situation, neglecting other important features. (with the water experiment, they concentrate on the height falling)

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irreversibility

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an inability to mentally go through a series of steps in a problem and then reverse direction, returning to the starting point.

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hierarchical classification

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the organization of objects into classes and subclasses on the basis of similarities and differences.

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private speech

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vygotsky's perspective is that "egocentric speech" is actually self-guidance or self-directed speech that children use more of when tasks are appropriately challenging-neither too easy nor too hard but within their zone of proximal development.

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intersubjectivity

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the process by which two participants who begin a task with different understandings arrive at a shared understanding.

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scaffolding

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adjusting the support offered during a teaching session to fit the child's current level of performance.

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guided participation

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a broader concept than scaffolding. it refers to shared endeavors between more expert and less expert participants, without specifying the precise features of communication.

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planning

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thinking out a sequence of acts ahead of time and allocating attention accordingly to reach a goal.

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memory strategies

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deliberate mental activities that improve our chances of remembering.

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episodic memory

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memory for everyday experiences.

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scripts

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general descriptions of what occurs and when it occurs in a particular situation.

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overlapping-waves theory

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when given challenging problems, children try out various strategies and observe which works best, which work less well, and which are ineffective.

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metacognition

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by age 3, children realize that thinking takes place inside their heads and that a person can think about something without seeing, touching or talking about it. "thinking about thought". Factors that contribute to preschoolers theory of mind are: language and verbal reasoning, cognitive abilities, make-believe play and social interaction.

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emergent literacy

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children's active efforts to construct literacy knowledge through informal experiences

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phonological awareness

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the ability to reflect on and manipulate the sound structure of spoken language.

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ordinality

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order relationship between quantities.

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cardinality

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the last number in a counting sequence indicates the quantity of items in the set.

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child-centered programs

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teachers provide activities from which children select, and much learning takes place through play.

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academic programs

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teachers structure children's learning, teaching letters, numbers, colors, shapes, and other academic skills through formal lessons, often using repetition and drill.

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project head start

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a typical center provides children with a year or two of preschool, along with nutritional and health services. parent involvement is central to the Head Start philosophy.

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fast mapping

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children's capicity to connect new words with their underlying concepts after only a brief encounter

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mutual exclusivity bias

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the assumption that words refer to entirely seperate (nonoverlapping) categories.

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synaptic bootstrapping

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preschoolers discover many word meanings by observing how words are used in syntax, or the structure of sentences.

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overregularization

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once children have learned new rules, they sometimes overextend the rules to words that are exceptions

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semantic bootstrapping

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according to one view, young children rely on semantics, or word meanings, to figure out grammatical rules

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pragmatics

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children must learn to engage in effective and appropriate communication - by taking turns, staying on the same topic, stating their messages clearly, and conforming to cultural rules for social interaction. this practical,social side of language is called ______

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recasts

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restructuring inaccurate speech into correct form

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expansions

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elaborating on children's speech, increasing its complexity.

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initiative vs guilt

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the psychological conflict of the preschool years

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self-concept

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the set of attributes, abilities, attitudes, and values that an individual believes defines who he or she is. This mental representation of the self has profound implications for children's emotional and social lives, influencing their preferences for activities and social partners and their vulnerability to stress.

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self-esteem

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the judgments we make about our own worth and the feelings associated with those judgements

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prosocial (altruistic) behavior

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actions that benefit another person without any expected reward for the self.

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sympathy

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feelings of concern or sorrow for another's plight.

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nonsocial activity

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unoccupied, onlooker behavior and solitary play

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parallel play

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a limited form of social participation in which a child plays near other children with similar materials but does not try to influence their behavior.

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associative play

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children engage in separate activities but exchange toys and comment on one another's behavior

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cooperative play

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at the highest level, children orient toward a common goal, such as acting out a make-believe theme

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social problem solving

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generating and applying strategies that prevent or resolve disagreements, resulting in outcomes that are both acceptable to others and beneficial to the self.

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induction

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conscience formation is promoted by this type of discipline, in which an adult helps make the child aware of feelings by pointing out the effects of the child's misbehavior on others.

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moral imperatives

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protect people's rights and welfare

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social conventions

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customs determined solely by consensus, such as table manners and politeness rituals

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proactive aggression

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children act to fulfill a need or desire, to obtain an object, privilege, space, or social reward, such as adult or peer attention, and UNEMOTIONALLY attack a person to achieve their goal

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reactive agression

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is an angry, defensive response to provocation or a blocked goal and is meant to HURT another person

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physical agression

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harms others through PHYSICAL injury-pushing, hitting, kicking or punching others, or destroying another's property

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verbal agression

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harms others through threats of physical agression, name-calling, or hostile teasing

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relational agression

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damages another's peer relationship, through social exclusion, malicious gossip, or friendship manipulation.

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gender typing

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refers to any association of objects, activities, roles, or traits with one sex or the other in ways that conform to cultural stereotypes.

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gender identity

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an image of oneself as relatively masculine or feminine in characteristics; the ability to identify oneself as male or female and to accurately identify the gender of others

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androgyny

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scoring high on both masculine and feminine personality characteristics

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gender constancy

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a full understanding of the biologically based on permanence of their gender, including the realization that sex remains the same over time, even if clothing, hairstyle, and play activities change.

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gender schema theory

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is an information-processing approach to gender typing that combines social learning and cognitive-developmental features. Explains how environmental pressures and children's cognitions work together to shape gender-role development.

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child-rearing styles

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Combinations of parenting behaviors that occur over a wide range of situations, creating an enduring child-rearing climate.

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authoritative child-rearing style

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the most successful approach-involves high acceptance and involvement, adaptive control techniques and appropriate autonomy granting.

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authoritarian child-rearing style

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is low in acceptance and involvement, high in coercive control, and low in autonomy granting. also excert psychological control over their children.

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psychological control

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in addition to unwarrented direct control, authoritarian parents engage in a more subtle type of control, in which they intrude on and manipulate children's verbal expression, individuality, and attachments to parents.

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permissive child-rearing style

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is warm and accepting but uninvolved. permissive parents are either overindulgent or inattentive and, thus, engage in little control. instead of gradually granting autonomy, they allow children to make many of their own decisions at an age when they are not yet capable of doing so.

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uninvolved child-rearing style

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combines low acceptance and involvement with little control and general indifference to issues of autonomy.

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STUDY: commercials of same-sex or other-sex children playing with a gender-neutral toy?

answer

...

ch 8-10 – Early childhood – Flashcards

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