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Four Major Themes

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1. Thinking Creatively about Biopsychology 2. Clinical Applications 3. The Evolutionary Perspective 4. Neuroplasticity = the brain is PLASTIC, not static

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Biopsychology

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The scientific study of the biology of behaviour - Emerged as a discipline in the 1940s - HOW the brain interacts with the environment to produce behaviours

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Herb (1949)

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- Proposed that psychological phenomena might be produced by brain activity - Helped DISCREDIT the notion that psychological functions were too complex to be derived from physiological activities - Proposed that connections between neurons CHANGED = Results in different (altered) or preferred firing patterns - Produced a memory (ENGRAM)

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Other Disciplines of Neuroscience

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1. Neuroanatomy 2. Neurochemistry 3. Neuroendocrinology 4. Neuropathology 5. Neuropharmacology 6. Neurophysiology

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Neuroanatomy

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- Structure of the nervous system

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Neurochemistry

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Chemical basis of neural activity - Depression and Serotonin - Personality

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Neuroendocrinology

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Interactions between the nervous system and the endocrine system

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Neuropathology

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Nervous system disorders - Alzheimer's, Schizophrenia

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Neuropharmacology

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Effects of drugs on neural activity

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Neurophysiology

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Functions and activities of the nervous system - If you stimulate some part of the brain - what happens

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WHY USE HUMAN SUBJECTS?

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1. Can follow instructions 2. Can make subjective reports

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WHY USE NON-HUMAN SUBJECTS?

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1. Simpler brains = More likely for brain-behaviour interactions to be revealed 2. Comparative approach = Gain insight by making comparisons with other species 3. Fewer ethical restrictions = For example, if you want to test the PROGRESSION of a disease

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Experiments

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Involve the MANIPULATION of variables - The key thing in experimental design that outlines cause and effect is every variable being equally distributed within various groups = Do this by RANDOMLY ASSIGNING subjects to groups

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Non-experiments

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The researcher does NOT control the variables of interest

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Quasiexperimental Studies

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Studies of groups of subjects exposed to conditions in the REAL world - No manipulation - Not real experiments as we are not controlling for potential confounded variables - NO random assignment to groups = Usually, subjects are categorized based on existing characteristics (i.e. diseased state) - Remember, if there is NO random assignment, it is hard to determine correlation between variables

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Case Studies

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Focus on a single individual - More in-depth than other approaches but may not be GENERALIZABLE - Often a source of a testable hypothesis (though cannot determine causation) - Have something known as ANECDOTAL EVIDENCE

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Generalizability

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The degree to which results can be applied to other cases - With mice and rats, we can make generalizations to the human condition = Spatial learning: manipulating hippocampus in the rat ---> if human hippocampus is damaged, amnesia can occur - CASE STUDIES may not have generalizability

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Generalizability: ANECDOTAL EVIDENCE

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Obtained from single story accounts - Can be valuable and true - But do not necessarily offer the "explanation" for a phenomenon themselves - For example: = A person may here about someone's cousin who ate spinach once and seemed to develop muscles overnight = Assumption that spinach was RESPONSIBLE for growth = This does not mean that it will work for everything and it is also possible that some other cause is at play - CASE STUDIES have Anecdotal Evidence

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Between-Subjects Design

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DIFFERENT groups of subjects tested under each condition

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Within-Subjects design

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SAME group of subjects tested under each condition

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Independent Variable

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Variable that is manipulated

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Dependent Variable

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Changes BECAUSE of the manipulation

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Confound Variable

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Variable that was NOT manipulated by the investigators = Consequently, observed differences between groups on the independent variable may be due to something other than the manipulation Example: - Differences between a diabetic and non-diabetic group on blood pressure may NOT have to do with the diabetes = Confounding variable could be LIFESTYLE; explains blood pressure

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Coolidge Effect

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Control of Confound Variables - Phenomenon seen in mammalian species whereby males (and to a lesser extent females) exhibit renewed sexual interest if introduced to new receptive sexual partners, even after cessation of sex with prior but still available sexual partners. - Has been demonstrated in males, but does it occur in females - The confound variable: = A female hamster may be MORE receptive to a new partner due to novelty or to his vigor (compared to the fatigued former partner)

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Pure Research

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Conducted for the purpose of acquiring knowledge - Pure (basic research) is trying to understand the mechanism of the issue Example: Problem with Hippocampus - Pure = problems because the hippocampus was DAMAGED

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Applied Research

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Intended to bring some direct benefit to humankind - Applied research tries to solve a problem Example: Problem with the Hippocampus - Applied = wants to reverse the damage that PURE research found, find a way to FIX it - Often research projects have elements of BOTH

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The Six Divisions of Biopsychology

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1. Physiological Psychology 2. Psychopharmacology 3. Neuropsychology 4. Psychophysiology 5. Cognitive Neuroscience 6. Comparative Psychology

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PHYSIOLOGICAL PSYCHOLOGY

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- Neural mechanisms of behaviour - Controlled experiments with direct manipulation of the brain - Evoked Response = Poke your finger; you feel it; must be electrical activity going on in the brain = Physiological psychology tries to understand WHAT is going on in the brain

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PSYCHOPHARMACOLOGY

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Controlled experiments of the effects of DRUGS on the brain and behaviour

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NEUROPSYCHOLOGY

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Study of psychological effects of brain damage in HUMAN patients - Usually has a clinical emphasis - Looks for impairment of function - BUT, different from clinical psychologists

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Clinical Psychologist vs. Neuropsychologist

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Neuropsychologists = Much more into brain area and function = Deals with ASSESSMENT Clinical Psychologists = What's the pathology? What can I do without it? = Deals with TREATMENT

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PSYCHOPHYSIOLOGY

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Relation between the physiological activity and psychological processes - Tested in human subjects with non-invasive psychological recording Example: - Visual tracking of a pendulum is abnormal in schizophrenics and first generation offspring

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COGNITIVE NEUROSCIENCE

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Neural basis of cognition in human subjects - Functional brain imaging is the major method of cognitive neuroscience = Functional MRIs are remarkable for determing what's goingin on in the brain - Look at the brain areas as well as what ENVIRONMENT is responsible for changes in cognition

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COMPARATIVE PSYCHOLOGY

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Comparing different species to understand evolution, genetics, and adaptiveness of behaviour - Laboratory and/or ethological research

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Example of Physiological Psychologists Contributions

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- Studied contributions of the hippocampus to memory by surgically removing the hippocampus in rats and assessing their ability to perform various memory tasks

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Example of Psychopharmacologists Contributions

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- Have tried to improve the memory of Alzheimer's patients by administering drugs that increase the levels of the neurotransmitter acetylcholine

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Example of Neuropsychologists Contributions

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- Have shown that patients with alcohol-produced brain damage have particular difficulty in remembering recent events

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Example of Psychophysiologists Contributions

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- Have shown that familiar faces elicit the usual changes in autonomic nervous system activity even when patients with brain damage report that they do not recognize a face

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Example of Cognitive Neuroscientists Contributions

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- Have used brain-imaging technology to observe the changes that occur in various parts of the brain while human volunteers perform memory tasks

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Example of Comparative Psychologists Contributions

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- Have shown that species of birds that cache their seeds tend to have big hippocampi, confirming that the hippocampus is involved in memory for location

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Converging Operations

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Using multiple approaches to address a SINGLE question - Example: Korsakoff's Syndrome

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KORSAKOFF'S SYNDROME

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Condition characterized by severe memory loss - Most commonly seen in alcoholics - However, found that Korsakoff's is also seen in MALNOURISHED persons who have had little or NO alcohol - So what else is going on? = Found that alcoholics also have very poor nutrition - Thiamine-deficient rats exhibit memory deficits = Alcohol ACCELERATES the development of brain damage in thiamine-deficient rats = Converging operations comes from the fact that rats are used in the studies to determine this - CONCLUSION = Korsakoff's Syndrome is the result of thiamine deficiency but the damage is accelerated by alcohol!

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Scientific Inference

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Empirical method of Biopsychologists use to study the unobservable - Scientists measure what they can observe and use these measures as a BASIS for inferring what they cannot observe - Empirical methods = proper experimental design, use evidence, not simply interpretations

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Example of Scientific Inference: How does the brain "see" movement?

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The brain sees as movement the TOTAL movement of an object's image on the retina MINUS the portion produced by active movement of the eyes - It does not subtract passive movement of the eyes (i.e. eye rotated upward by finger)

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Critical Thinking

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The ability to evaluate scientific claims by identifying potential ommissons or weaknesses in the evidence Example: - Moniz wins a Nobel Prize for Prefrontal Lobotomy - Adoption for treatment on humans based largely on the study of a single chimpanzee - Inadequate postoperative evaluation of human patients, often by the physician who prescribed the surgery - Lots of undesirable effects such as = amorality = lack of foresight = emotional unresponsiveness = epilepsy

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MORGAN'S CANON

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Give precedence to the simplest interpretation for a behavioural observation

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Cartesian Dualism ("Is it Psychological or Physiological?")

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Descartes argued that the universe consists of two elements that are both at play but SEPARATE entities: 1. Physical Matter 2. Human Mind (Soul, Self, or Spirit) - Viewed the mind and the brain as SEPARATE ENTITIES

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The Nature vs. Nurture Issue

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"Useless" question - Nature can be more important than nurture (and vice versa) in regards to certain traits, but NOT overall

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Watson

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- Behaviourist - Believed that all behaviour is the product of learning (NURTURE)

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Ethology

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The study of animal behaviour in the wild - Focuses on instinctive (NATURE) behaviours

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PROBLEMS OF TRADITIONAL DICHOTOMIES: Mind-Brain Dualism Problems PROBLEM 1

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Brain damage has an impact on psychological function. - If they were separate, brain damage wouldn't effect psychological function. Example: Oliver Sacks' case study of a man with Asomatognosia

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Asomatognosia

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Deficiency in awareness of parts of one's own body = Result of damage to the RIGHT PARIETAL LOBE - Damage in certain parts of the brain causes deficiency in awareness of body parts and the body in relation to surrounding space and objects

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Beck

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Note that certain pathologies (i.e. depression) can be a result of environment, how you are thinking, etc. - Beck developed talk therapy that worked - People who engaged in talk therapy that actually changes brain function (much like pharmacology) = THINKING can change BRAIN FUNCTION and vice versa

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PROBLEMS OF TRADITIONAL DICHOTOMIES: Mind-Brain Dualism Problems PROBLEM 2

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Chimps show psychological (i.e. human) abilities - Chimps spontaneously groom themselves and examine/touch red marks on their own faces after seeing their reflections in the mirror - Seem to be self-aware to a certain extent

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Interactionism

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- Many people still ask how much of behaviour is determined by each nature and nurture - But, genetic and experiential factors do not merely combine in an additive fashion (they interact)

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How Biopyschologists Think About the Biology of Behaviour

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1. EVOLUTION influences the pool of behaviour-influencing genes available 2. EXPERIENCE modifies the expression of an individual's genes 3. GENES initiate a unique program of neural development 4. INTERACTION of GENES + EXPERIENCE = Development of an individual's nervous system 5. CURRENT ORGANISM'S behavioural capacities and tendencies determined by unique genes/experiences/memories/ feelings, etc. 6. CURRENT SITUATION (current behaviour arises out of interactions of patterns of neural activity and its perception of the current situation) 7. CURRENT ORGANISM + CURRENT SITUATION = CURRENT BEHAVIOUR 8. Brings us back to Evolution and Experience

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Human Evolution: ALFRED RUSSEL WALLACE

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First to propose that species evolve - Did not receive public notice as Darwin did

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Darwin

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NOT the first to propose that species evolve but he WAS the first to compile supporting evidence (and suggest ways in which evolution works)

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Natural Selection

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Evolution occurs through Natural Selection - Most adaptive species tend to survive = Not necessarily related to strength (i.e. if food is scarce, skinny/fatter organisms may survive over muscular, since muscle takes up more energy) - NOT random = Depends on whether or not that change is beneficial = Deals with the present environment, geography, or time; NO foresight = If we are a manipulative species, we are going to select for those that are able to manipulate (this is where evolution comes in)

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Darwin's Evidence for Evolution

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1. FOSSIL EVIDENCE = Fossil records change systematically through geological layers 2. STRUCTURAL SIMILARITIES AMONG LIVING SPECIES = Conserved genetics between species = Suggests common ancestors 3. IMPACT OF SELECTIVE BREEDING = Major changes have been created in domestic plants and animals by selective breeding 4. EVOLUTION HAS BEEN OBSERVED IN PROGRESS = For example, an 18-month drought on one of the Galapagos Islands left only large, difficult-to-eat seeds and increased the beak size in one species of finch = THIS ISN'T REALLY AN ORIGINAL PIECE OF EVIDENCE FROM DARWIN

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Fitness

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Fitness doesn't mean STRENGTH, it means ADAPTABILITY = Physical features AND BEHAVIOURS contribute to fitness

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Evolution of Vertebrates

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Chordates have Dorsal Nerve Chords - Vertebrates are chordates with spinal bones

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Evolution of Amphibians

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- Bony fishes leave the water briefly - Advantages include fresh water and new food sources

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Evolution of Reptiles

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- Lay shell-covered eggs; covered by dry scales - Can live far from water

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Evolution of Mammals

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- Develop mammary glands to nurture young - Eventually no longer lay eggs - Raise young in mother's body - Humans emerge from the order of primates

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Emergence of Human Kind

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- Humans belong to the family HOMINIDS = Genus HOMO - First homo species emerged from Australopethhicus 2 million years ago - HOMO SAPIENS emerged 200,000 years ago

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Superiority of Species????

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Realize that superior means NOTHING unless you take CONTEXT into consideration - Can we say that humans are the best/most important species on Earth?? - Depends on context (where and when you are ) = In terms of survivability (famine, drought), cockroaches or rats might be the best = In terms of strength, maybe elephants or blue whales = In terms of information manipulation, humans

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Human Evolution

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Evolution does NOT proceed in a single line - Humans have only been around for a brief period of time = Rapid evolutionary changes DO occur = Fewer than 1% of ALL known species are still in existence

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Human Evolution: Squandrels

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Evolution does not necessarily result in perfect design - Not all existing behaviour or structures are adaptive SQUANDRELS = Incidental, non-adaptive by-products - I.e. human belly button

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Human Evolution: Exaptations

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Not all existing ADAPTIVE characteristics evolved to perform their current functions - EXAPTATIONS = evolved to do one thing, but now do something else - i.e. bird wings

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Homologous Structures

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Similar structures due to a COMMON evolutionary origin

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Analogous Structures

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Similar structures WITHOUT common origin

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Convergent Evolution

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Evolution of similar solutions to the same environmental demands by unrelated species

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Brain Size

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No relationship between brain size and intelligence - Brain size generally correlated with body size - More informative to look at the relative sizes of different brain regions

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Evolution of Human Brain

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Human brain size has INCREASED during evolution - Most of the increase has occurred in the CEREBRUM - Increased convolutions (coils or twists) in the Cerebrum have served to increase the volume of the CEREBRAL CORTEX

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Mate Bonding

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Most species mate promiscuously - Most mammals form POLYGYNOUS BONDS - Humans generally form MONOGAMOUS bonds

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7 Year Itch

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- By 6 or 7 years, it is possible that an offspring can survive on their own - Presumably, parents do not have to be there and move onto other mates = Spread their genes more widely

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Dichotomous Traits

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Occur in one form or the OTHER - Never in combination

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True-Breeding Lines

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Interbred members always produce offspring with the same trait

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Mendel's Experiments

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Studied Dichotomous Traits in True-Breeding Lines of pea plants - True-Breeding Lines = WHITE (ww) and BROWN (BB) - First generation: Offspring all had BROWN seeds - F1: 75% BROWN, 25% WHITE

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Phenotype vs. Genotype

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Observable traits vs. Traits present in the genes

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Alleles

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- Each inherited factor is a GENE - Two genes that control the SAME trait are ALLELES - Homozygous - Heterozygous

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Homozygous

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Two identical alleles - BB, ww

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Heterozygous

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Two different alleles - Bw

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IS EVOLUTION RANDOM?

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NOOOOOO - Mutations can be random but evolution is NOT

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Chromosomes

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- Genes are located on chromosomes in the NUCLEUS of each cell - Humans have 23 pairs of chromosomes = An allele on each chromosome

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Meiosis

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Process of cell division that yields cells with just 23 chromosomes = Produces gametes (egg cells, sperm cells)

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Mitosis

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Cell division that yields daughter cells that have 23 PAIRS of chromosomes = 46 chromosomes in total

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Linkage

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Tendency of traits encoded on the same chromosome to be inherited together

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Crossing Over

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"Shuffles the genetic deck" - Increases diversity

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Asexual Reproduction

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Better if the environment is mostly unchanging to preserve adaptive genes

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Sexual Reproduction

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Better if the environment is changing rapidly to create genetic variation

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Sex Chromosomes

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Female = XX Male = XY Sex-linked traits are influenced by genes on the sex chromosomes - Traits on the X-chromosome: = DOMINANT is seen more commonly in FEMALES = RECESSIVE is seen more commonly in MALES

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Regulation of Gene Expression: ENHANCERS

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Stretches of DNA that determine whether particular structural genes initiate the synthesis of proteins, and at what rate

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Regulation of Gene Expression: TRANSCRIPTION FACTORS

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Proteins that bind to DNA and influence the extent to which genes are expressed

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Regulation of Gene Expression: EPIGENETICS

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The pattern of actual gene expression vs. the genes possessed is most important - Patterns of gene expression appear to be heritable

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Two Epigenetic Mechanisms

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1. Histone remodelling = Involves modifications to a histone protein (around which DNA is coiled) = Can either decrease of increase gene expression 2. DNA methylation = Involves the attachment of a methyl group to DNA = Tends to reduce the expression of adjacent genes

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Interaction of Genetic Factors and Experience: Three Influential Studies

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1. Selective Breeding of "Maze Bright" and "Maze Dull" Rats = Effects of enriched and restricted early environments on the learning ability of bright and dull rats = Maze-dull rats did not make significantly more errors than maze-bright rats when both groups were reared in enriched environment 2. PHENYLKETONURIA (PKU): a single-gene metabolic disorder = Due to a single mutant recessive gene = A special diet during critical period of development lessens mental retardation = Example of interaction between genetics (recessive gene) and environment (diet) 3. DEVELOPMENT of BIRDSONG = Young males must hear their species' songs during the critical period otherwise they develop ABNORMAL bird song = Young male canaries have LEFT-side neurological dominance for song (similar to human left dominance for SPEECH) = Adult male canaries grow new neurons each spring (early discovery of adult NEUROGENESIS)

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Multiplier Effect

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Genetically similar individuals seek out similar environments

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What About Epigenetics: HITLER

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Tried to eradicate Jews as well as individuals with mental disorders - Found later on that it actually did not reduce the prevalence of mental health disorders - Epigenetics = Even though the phenotype was taking care of, people are breeding and genetic variation is still occurring = Produce mental health problems

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What About Epigenetics: Can Depression Have Useful, Adaptive Qualities?

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Theorists: Male 1 challenges male 2 to territoy - If male 2 is stronger, male 1 will back off - If challenger fails, testosterone levels decrease = Goes away and lives on to see another day = A lot of thinking going on; thinking about the event over and over again (similar to someone thinking about an event that triggered the depression) = Come up with a new strategy! - "Come back to the ring" - Could possibly be successful = Depression has removed them from a situation, stopped using the old strategy that may have gotten them killed and developed a new strategy that may prove to be successful

Biopsychology Lecture 1 – Flashcards

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