Bio 7-10 – Flashcard
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DNA
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deoxyribonucleic acid, hereditary molecule that is passed from parents to offspring, serves as manual for how to build an individual
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all
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why type of organism has DNA?
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Discovery of DNA
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known to be a chemical by end of nineteenth century, stores genetic info, can be passed from generations
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molecular biology
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study of heredity at the molecular level
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nucleus
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where is DNA located in Eukaryotes?
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nucleosome
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where is DNA located in Prokaryotes?
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chromosome
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single DNA molecule wrapped around proteins called histones
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human DNA
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23 pairs of chromosomes, one from each set is from each parent
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nucleotides
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DNA and RNA are nucleic acids that consist of..
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polynucleotide
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a nucleotide polymer is a ...
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4 nucleotides
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thymine, cytosine, adenine, guanine
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RNA has _______ instead of thymine
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uracil
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Crick and Watson, Rosalind Franklin used X-ray crystallography
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who discovered DNA?
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saves space, protein interactions
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Why use a double helix?
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prokaryotic nucleoid
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bacteria pack their DNA into a series of loops or domains, collectively called the nucleoid
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topoisomerases
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regulate widing of DNA, induce super coiling or unwind DNA
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genome
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haploid set of chromosomes in a gamete or microorganism, in each cell.
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conserved regions
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tend to be more G-C rich in many organisms. Stronger binding affinity
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need to be able to pull strands apart to replicate
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why do we want weaker bonds in between strands?
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dna replication
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how does info from dna pass to offspring and new cells?
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dna replication
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when a cell produces a complete copy of the dna must pass frm one generation the the next
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dna helicases
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separate double stranded DNA into two single strands
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dna polymerases
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enzymes make the covalent bond between the nucleotides of a new dna strand
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semi-conservative mechanism
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produces two copies of the original dna molecule, each molecule consists of one of the strands
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origin of replication
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where replication starts
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genotype
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genetic makeup, sequence of nucleotide bases in DNA
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phenotype
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physical traits, arise from actions of a wide variety of proteins coded by DNA
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G-C
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which base pair is strongest?
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half
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DNA replications ic called semi conservative because ____ of the original helix appears in the newly formed helix after replication
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DNA directionally
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5 - upstream, 3 - downstream
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primers- short segments of dna that guide dna polymerase to the section of dna to copy
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how does dna know where to attach on a single stranded DNA?
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exonuclease activity
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removal or rna primer, and replaced by dna polymerase with new polymerase
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DNA ligase
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seals off fragments in DNA in DNA replication
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50 base pairs per second
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how fast is DNA polymerase?
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about 3 million base pairs
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how big is the human genome?
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dna profile
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visual representation of a persons unique dna
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genomic library
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collection of dna fragments that included an organisms entire genome
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repetitive DNA
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makes up much of the DNA that lies between genes in humans and consists of nucleotide sequences
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STR analysis
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method of DNA profiling, compares lengths
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genome science
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DNA based technologies of tomorrow and today
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Helicase
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in PCR heat takes the place of which enzyme?
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1
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how many cells does it take to get enough DNA for fingerprinting?
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gel electrophoresis
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separates fragments of DNA by size, concentration determines how well DNA filters through gel
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dna profiling
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look at multiple STRs, pattern of STR repeats at multiple sites is unique to a person
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innocence project
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uses DNA to free wrongly convicted people
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CSI effect
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DNA can take weeks, machinery is expensive generates scientific awareness
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DNA technology
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creation of genetically modified crops, identify and treat disease, criminal justice system
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introns
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repetitive dna sequences, gene control sequences all do not code for specific proteins
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plants largest: amoeba dubia
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what organism has the largest genome?
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myriad genomics
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claimed a patent on the BRCA1/2 genes in humans with breast cancer
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amino acids
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building blocks of proteins all have same basic core structure unique chemical side group
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found on chromosomes, carries a unique set of genes
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where do proteins come from?
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gene expression
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synthesis of a protein from a gene
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alleles
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alternative versions of the same gene, have different nucleotide sequences, different alleles influence protein function
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central dogma of biology
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dna > rna> protein
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transcription
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dna > rna, tranfer of genetic information from dna to rna molecule
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translation
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transfer of information from rna to a protein
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mRNA
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messenger RNA - carries information from genes to ribosome for protein
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rRNA
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ribosomal RNA - structural makes up ribosome subunits for a functioning ribosome
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tRNA
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transfer RNA - pairs up with matching mRNA at the ribosome and attached amino acids to make amino acid chains, which then go on to making functional proteins
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RNA polymerase
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binds to the regulatroy of the genes coding region, DNA strands unwind, copies a strand of DNA intro a complementary strand of mRNA
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codon
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triplet of bases, which codes for one amino acid
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genetic code
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set of rules that convert a nucleotide sequence in rNA to an amino acid sequence
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mRNA, enzymes, ribosomes, ATP, tRNA
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what do we need to make translation happen?
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anticodons
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special triplet of bases that is complementary to a codon triplet on mRNA
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rna
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transcription creates?
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a site
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holds newest tRNA carrying the next amino acid to be added to a growing chain
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p site
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holds tRNA carrying growing polypeptide chain
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e site (exit site)
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empty tRNA leaves the ribosome
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translation 3 steps
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initiation, elongation, and termination
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initiation
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brings together mRNA, amino acid, subunits of ribosome
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elongation
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subsequent amino acids are brought to mRNA by tRNA and adds to a growing polypeptide chain
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termination
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a stop codon reaches ribosomes a site, polypeptide is freed ribosome splits back into subunits
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genomic trunk
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about 98% of human DNA was identified as noncoding
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regulatory sequence
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determine when and how much protien a gene makes
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coding sequence
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determine the amino acid sequence of the encoded protein
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eukaryotic transcription
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RNA transcribed from a gene functions as mRNA, euk cell modifies RNA
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eukaryotic rna processing
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adding a cap and tail of extra nucleotides, removes introns, join exons
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alternative RNA splicing
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exons may be spliced together in different combinations producing more than one type of polypeptide from a single gene
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DNA
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reverse transciptase converts RNA to ....?
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yes
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do virgin births happen in nature?
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heal wounds, growth, cell replacement
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what does cell reproduction accomplish?
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reproduction
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asexual (mitosis) sexual (meiosis)
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asexual (mitosis)
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single-celled organisms reproduce by simple cell division, no fertilization of an egg by sperm
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diploid cells, growth and development
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what types of cells are produced by mitosis?
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sexual
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requires fertilization of an egg by a sperm, used for reproduction
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46
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how many chromosomes do humans have?
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chromosomes
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made of chromatin, fibers composed of roughly equal amounts of DNA and protein molecules
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histones
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proteins used to package DNA in eukaryotes
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nucleosomes
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consist of DNA wound around histone molecules
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chromosomes are evenly divided, sister chromatids are separated, centromere
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how do mitosis cells divide?
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cell cycle
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ordered sequence of evens that extrend from time of cell is formed to its own division
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interphase
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metabolism and growth (90% of time), G1 G2 & S phases
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mitotic phase
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cell division (10% of time)
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2%
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what percent of microbes can we grow in the lab (are culturable)?
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DNA primase
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adds RNA primer
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DNA helicase
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unwinds DNA
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exonuclease
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removes RNA primers
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ligase
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repairs breaks that may occur
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primers
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short segments of DNA that guide DNA polymerase to the section of DNA to copy
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polymerase chain reaction
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allows dna replication to occur many times, can make billions of copies from a starting same of just a few molecules of DNA
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sister chromatids
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before a cell divides, it duplicates chromosomes, resulting in two copies called ________ containing identical genes
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preparatory phase
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copy cellular content, duplicate organelles, DNA, and cytoplasm, interphase
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G1 phase
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cell grows, makes extra cytoplasm
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S phase
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DNA replication identical sister chromatids
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division phase
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mitosis cytokinsesis
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4 states of mitosis
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P(rophase) M(etaphase) A(naphase) T(elophase&cytokinsesis)
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prophase
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replicated chromosomes begin to coil up, nuclear membrane begins to disassemble, microtubule fibers form mitotic spindle
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metaphase
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microtubules attach to the sister chromatids, replicated chromosomes become aligned along the middle of cell
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anaphase
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microtubules shorten, pulling the sister chrimatids to the opposite ends of the cell
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telophase
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identical sets reach each pole, spindle fibers disassemble, nuclear membrane forms
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mitotic spindle
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made of microtubules, hollow protein fibers, key components of cytoskeleton, attach to centromere on chromosome via kinetochore proteins
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cytokinesis
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the cell membrane pinches in to separate daughter cells
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prokaryotes
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mitosis prokaryotes vs eukaryotes, who wins in terms of numbers over 30 hours?
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meiosis
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sexual reproduction, produces offspring that contain a unique combination of genes from the parents
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how unique are you?
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1:70 trillion chance of offspring
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sex chromosomes
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XX - female, XY- males
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autosomes
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22 pairs of matching chromosomes
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down syndrome
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also called trisomy 21, individual has an extra chromosome, 1 in 700 children
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gametes
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reproductive cells that carry one copy of each chromosome
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meiosis 1
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separates homologous chromosomes, daughter cell is haploid, each chromosomes still has 2 sister chromatids
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meiosis 2
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separate sister chromatids, four haploid daughter cells, develop into egg or sperm
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recombination
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when maternal and paternal chromosomes pair and physically exchange DNA segments
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independent assortment
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alleles of different genes are distributed independently of one another
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heterozygote
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two different alleles (Aa)
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homozygote
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two identical alleles (AA) (aa)
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mutation
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why has nature designed only 1 start and 3 stops?
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nucleotide substitutions
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replacement of one base by another
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nucleotide deletion
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loss or addition of a nucleotide
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missense mutation
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single nucleotide causes an amino acid change that results in a non-functional protein
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nonsense mutation
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a SNP causes incomplete translation and thus a non functional protein
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silent mutation
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a SNP causes no change in amino acid, however the codon has changed functions
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change in blueprint, makes mistakes, environmental factors, DNA polymerase adds wrong nucleotide
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how do mutations arise?
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mutation
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change in the nucleotide sequence of DNA, affects structure and function of protein.
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photo-oncogenes
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promote cell division can be mutated to become permanently activated, encode for growth factors
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tumor suppressor genes
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pause cell division, repair dna or initiate cell death, can be mutated to become inactivated
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cell cycle checkpoints
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either repair damage or direct cell to commit suicide (apoptosis)
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benign tumor, then tumor may develop and spread, malignant tumor
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tumor stages
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somatic mutation
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occurs in a body cell and is not passed on to offspring
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germ-line mutation
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occurs in gametes and is passed on to offspring, heritable mutations
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born with mutation, develops into malignant quicker
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why do people with "inherited" cancer often develop cancer at a relatively young age?
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telomere
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prevent chromosomes from losing base pair sequences, stop chromosomes from fusing to each other
