APGOPO Chapters 18-20

policies that provide benefits, cash or in-kind, to individuals, based on either entitlement or means testing

government programs providing benefits to qualified individuals regardless of need

government programs providing benefits only to individuals who qualify based on specific needs

the way the national income is divided into "shares" ranging from the poor to the rich

a perception by an individual that he or she is not doing well economically in comparison to others

the amount of money collected between any two points in time

the value of assets owned

the income threshold below which people are considered poor, based on what a family must spend for an "austere" standard of living, traditionally set at three times the cost of a subsistence diet

the increasing concentration of poverty among women, especially unmarried women and their children

a tax by which the government takes a greater share of the income of the rich than of the poor--for example, when a rich family pays 50% of its income in taxes, and a poor family pays 5%

a tax by which the government takes the same share of income from everyone, rich and poor alike

a tax in which the burden falls relatively more heavily on low-income groups than on wealthy taxpayers. The opposite of a progressive tax, in which tax rates increase as income increases

the Earned Income Tax Credit, or the EITC, is a refundable federal income tax credit for low-to moderate-income working individuals and families, even if they did not earn enough money to be required to file a tax return

benefits given by the government directly to individuals--either cash transfers, such as Social Security payments, or in-kind transfers, such as food stamps and low-interest college loans

Created both the social Security program and a national assistance program for poor families, usually called Aid to Families with Dependent Children

the welfare reform law of 1996, which implemented the Temporary Assistance for Needy Families programs

Replacing Aid to Families with Dependent Children as the program for public assistance to needy families, TANF requires people on welfare to find work within two years and sets a lifetime maximum of five years

the "account" into which Social Security employee and employer contributions are "deposited" and used to pay out eligible recipients

means-tested social welfare programs provide benefits only to people who qualify for them based on specific needs. In contrast, entitlement programs provide benefits to individuals without regard to need. Because entitlement programs can provide benefits to everyone, they are generally more popular with the public than means-tested programs

despite America's affluence, the extent of inequality--the disparity between incomes--is quite substantial and has been increasing in recent decades. America's means-tested social welfare programs help to reduce inequality by helping the poorest individuals. Progressive taxes, such as the federal income tax, also alleviate inequality by taking a bigger bite out of the rich than the middle class

the Aid to Families with Dependent Children (AFDC) program was begun during FDR's New Deal, greatly expanded during the period of LBJ's Great Society, and then reduced in scope by the Reagan administration. When he ran for president in 1992, Bill Clinton promised to "end welfare as we know it." With the help of a Republican majority in Congress in 1996, this was accomplished as the AFDC program was replaced by Temporary Assistance to Needy Families (TANF). The major innovation of the new law was that recipients of aid can only be on the welfare rolls for two consecutive years and five years during their lifetime

the social security program collects a payroll tax from workers and their employers each month and pays out monthly benefits to retirees. It has proved to be highly successful and popular program. However, demographic trends have put the program in danger, as soon there will not be enough workers per beneficiary to keep the program solvent. The government will soon face the painful choice between raising taxes or cutting benefits to senior citizens

Most established democracies have more expensive and generous social welfare programs than does the US. In particular, European governments provide citizens with benefits, such as paid parental leave upon the birth of a child, that are unheard of in the US. Taxes in Europe have to be higher than taxes in the US in order to pay for these benefits

As in most policy arenas, groups with ample political resources tend to get more of what they want in the battle over social welfare policies. Thus, the elderly have been very successful in preserving their Social Security and Medicare benefits, whereas the poor have faced difficulties in getting increased funding for TANF. Overall, the growth in social welfare spending, particularly for Social Security and Medicare, accounts for much of the increase in the scope of government in recent decades

organization contracted by individuals or insurance companies to provide health care for a yearly fee. Such network health plans limit the choice of doctors and treatments. More than half of Americans are enrolled in health maintenance organizations or similar programs

a program added to the Social Security system in 1965 that provides hospitalization insurance for the elderly and permits older Americans to purchase inexpensive coverage for doctor fees and other medical expenses

a public assistance program designed to provide health care for poor Americans and funded by both the states and the national government

a compulsory insurance program for all Americans that would have the government finance citizens' medical care. First proposed by President Harry S. Truman

the largest federal independent regulatory agency, created in 1970 to administer much of US environmental protection policy

Passed in 1969, the centerpiece of federal environmental policy, which requires agencies to file environmental impact statements

a detailing of a proposed policy's environmental effects, which agencies are required to file with the EPA every time they propose to undertake a policy that might be disruptive to the environment

the law aimed at combating air pollution, by charging the EPA with protecting and improving the quality of the nation's air

a law intended to clean up the nation's rivers and lakes, by enabling regulation of point sources of pollution

A law requiring the federal government to protect all species listed as endangered

A fund created by Congress in 1980 to clean up hazardous waste sites. Money for the fund comes from taxing chemical products

the increase in the earth's temperatures, that, according to most scientists, is occurring as a result of the carbon dioxide that is produced when fossil fuels are burned collecting in the atmosphere and trapping energy from the sun

America's health costs are both extremely high and increasing at a rapid rate. The health care system provides few incentives for controlling costs, and Americans who can afford it demand the most advanced care. There are severe inequalities in health care and hence in health in America. Insurance has been mainly obtainable as a benefit from employers, and many poor and working-class Americans, uninsured or under insured, have been relegated to an inferior health care system. The government provides health care for the elderly and the poor through Medicare and Medicaid, and since the reforms of 2010, intended to increase access and help control costs, it provides subsidies for health insurance to small businesses and individuals

Environmental concerns often conflict with equally legitimate concerns about economic growth and jobs. Interest groups advocating environmental protection now play a critical role in environmental policymaking. The Environmental Protection Agency is charged with water quality, and wilderness and wildlife preservation. The national Environmental Policy Act requires the federal government to file an environmental impact statement with the EPA every time it proposes to undertake a policy that is potentially disruptive to the environment. The Clean Air Act charges the EPA with protecting and improving the quality of the nation's air, while the Water Pollution Control Act aims to clean the nation's water. yet other policies, such as the Endangered Species Act, seek to preserve wilderness areas and wildlife. The disposal of toxic wastes, including nuclear waste, continues to challenge policymakers, although the Superfund has helped to clean up toxic waste sites. Global warming is another intractable issue, as there is disagreement over the role of carbon emissions in warming the earth and there is not agreed-upon approach to controlling them

coal is America's most abundant fuel and produces nearly half our electricity, but it is the dirtiest source of energy. Petroleum supplies most of our motor fuel, and natural gas produces over a fifth of our electricity. Although they are somewhat cleaner than coal, they both contribute to global warming and drilling, transporting, and refining of oil and gas are also sources of pollution. Moreover, the US is dependent on other nations to supply much of its oil and gas. Nuclear power is clean and provides more than a fifth of our electricity. However, many question its safety and the storage of nuclear waste has proven to be an intractable problem. Renewable energy sources, including water, wind, solar, geothermal, hydrogen, and biomass, will probably play an important role at some point, but for the foreseeable future, their contribution to America's energy supply is likely to remain small

High-tech issues strain the limits of public participation i na democracy, but most Americans do not leave these issues to "experts" to decide. The public often relies on group representation to help them out with technical issues. The scope of the federal gov't has grown as it has provided health care of the elderly, the poor, and more recently, those who simply cannot afford health insurance. Health is the most rapidly growing public policy and poses a long-term challenge for budgeters. Similarly, concerns for environmental protection have placed additional demands on the federal gov't, increasing its regulatory reach. The public also expects the government to ensure a sufficient supply of energy and to deal with its polluting byproducts

policy that involves choice taking about relations with the rest of the world. The president is the chief initiator of US foreign policy

Created in 1945 and currently including 192 member nations, with a central peacekeeping mission and programs in areas including economic development and health, education, and welfare. The seat of real power in the UN is the Security Council

A regional organization that was created in 1949 by nations including the US, Canada, and most Western European nations for mutual defense and has subsequently been expanded

a transnational government composed of most European nations that coordinates monetary, trade, immigration, and labor policies, making its members one economic unit

the head of the Department of State and traditionally the key adviser to the president on foreign policy

the head of the Department of Defense and the presidnet's key adviser on miliary policy and, as such, a key foreign policy actor

a group that consists of the commanding officers of each of the armed services, a chairperson, and advises the president on military policy

an agency created after WWII to coordinate American intelligence activities abroad and to collect, analyze, and evaluate intelligence

the foreign policy course the US followed throughout most of its history whereby it tried to stay out of other nations' conflicts, particularly European wars

a foreign policy strategy advocated by George Kennan that called for the US to isolate the Soviet Union, "contain" its advances ,and resist its encroachments by peaceful means if possible but by force if necessary

the hostility between the US and the Soviet Union, which often brought them to the brink of war and which spanned the period from the end of WWII until the collapse of the soviet Union and Eastern European communist regimes in 1989 and the years following

a tense relationship beginning in the 1950s between the Soviet Union and the US whereby one side's weaponry became the other side's goad to procure more weaponry, and so on

a policy, beginning in the early 1970s, that sought a relaxation of tensions between the US an the Soviet Union, coupled with firm guarantees of mutual security

mutual reliance, as in the economic realm, in which actions in nations reverberate and affect the economic well-being of people in other nations

a special tax added to imported goods to raise their price, thereby protecting businesses and workers from foreign competition

the ratio of what is paid for imports to what is earned from exports. When more is paid than earned, there is a balance-of-trade deficit

an economic organization consisting primarily of Middle Eastern nations that seeks to control the amount of oil its members produce and sell to other nations and hence the price of oil

the use and potential use of military force, economic policies, and diplomacy and the main instruments of national security policy. Nations, international and regional organizations, multinational corporations, nongovernmental organizations, terrorists, and individuals influence American national security policy. The president is the main force in national security policymaking, and he is assisted by the Department of State and Defense and by the CIA and the rest of the intelligence establishment. Congress also plays an important role in national security policy

until the mid-twentieth century, American foreign policy emphasized keeping a distance from the affairs of other countries, with the notable exception of countries in Latin America. Following WWII, the US became locked in an ideological conflict with the Soviet Union and focused its foreign policy on containing communism and Soviet expansion. This competition came to include a nuclear arms race and US involvement in wars in Korea and Vietnam against communist forces, but never war between the US and the Soviet Union. There were efforts to relax tensions, but the Cold War did not end until the breakup of the Soviet Union and the liberalization of governments in Eastern Europe. Nevertheless, the US maintained an enormous defense capability

the US defense capability has been put to new use with the war on terrorism, the struggle that is at the top of America's national security priorities. It is difficult to defend against terrorism in an open society. Terrorists have the advantage of stealth and surprise and, often, of a willingness to die for their cause. They are also generally decentralized, so we cannot defeat them simply by attacking another nation. Moreover, winning the war on terrorism requires political as well as military success. The US wars with Iraq and Afghanistan were motivated by the fight against terrorists. However, ensuring legitimate, effective governance remains difficult, and a terrorist haven has emerged in remote regions of Pakistan

the US spends about 1/5 of its budget on national defense, and has 1.4 million men and women in the active duty armed services and another 845,000 on the National Guard and reserves. Modern weapons systems are sophisticated, expensive, and dangerous, and the US has entered a number of important agreements to reduce nuclear weapons. Recent reforms in defense policy, intended to reshape it for changed threats, have placed more emphasis on lighter, faster, and more flexible forces, the more effective use of intelligence ,the use of Special Forces, and counter terrorism

Although the US has great military power, many of the issues facing the world today are not military issues. Nuclear proliferation and terrorism present new challenges to national security, challenges not easily met by advanced weaponry alone. Global inter dependency in economics, energy, the environment, and other areas has also become important, revealing new vulnerabilities and thus additional challenges for national security policy. The effective use of foreign aid is also a perennial policy concern

Although there are different opinions over how much discretion to accord policymakers in national security policy, policies at odds with the public's wishes cannot be sustained, and Congress can be a crucial check on the executive. As long as the US is fighting a war on terrorism, has treaty obligations to defend allies around the world, participates actively in an interdependent global economy, and must deal with pressing questions such as energy supplies, global warming, and nuclear proliferation, the scope of American government in foreign and defense policy will be substantial