Anatomy & Physiology 2111-Chapter 1-Darton (Exam 1) – Flashcards

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What must a healthcare practitioner do when a patient presents with signs and symptoms that suggest several diseases?
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A healthcare practitioner must ask questions and collect information to determine the source of the problem since different diseases may present similar signs and symptoms. First, a practitioner would use the patient's history and a physical examination to look for clues to the illness plaguing the patient. This may be enough for a physician to assign a diagnosis, but lab testing and imaging studies are often needed to confirm the diagnosis or to collect further data if a diagnosis is unconfirmed.
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What is the key concept that should be learned from this reading selection? Quiz 1-8
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All diagnostic procedures presuppose an understanding of the normal structure and function of the human body. In other words, a healthcare practitioner needs to have a working knowledge of normal functional anatomy and physiology of the human body BEFORE they can try to identify dysfunction in the body. You have to know normal before you can recognize abnormal. Diagnosis of patients relies heavily on the study of what is normal and abnormal in the body particularly in the field of study of pathology and pathophysiology before diagnosis decisions can be made.
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The ability of the organism to form new cells or to form a new whole organism describes which characteristic of life?
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reproduction
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The ability of the organism or a part of the organism to specialize in order to perform its role more efficiently describes which characteristic of life?
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differentiation
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The ability to sense change and make adjustments to maintain life describes which characteristic of life?
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responsiveness
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All activities promoted by the muscular system, both internal and external describes which characteristic of life?
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movement
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The ability of the whole organism, or a part of it, to increase in size describes which characteristic of life?
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growth
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The ability to use energy to maintain the functions necessary to maintain life describes which characteristic of life?
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metabolism
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The ability of the parts of an organism to interact, performing specific functions for the good of the organism describes which characteristic of life?
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organization
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The study of the function of a cell is called
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cell physiology
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X-rays, ultrasound, MRI, and other technologies used to create pictures of internal structures are examples of
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anatomical imaging
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The study of the changes in the body from conception to physical maturity is called
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developmental anatomy
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The study of the body's organization that considers the heart, blood and all of the associated blood vessels as a unit is called
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systemic anatomy
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The study of the body's organization by areas (the approach used in most medical schools) is called
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regional anatomy
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The study of the effects of disease on organs and organ systems of the body is called
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pathology
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The study of how organs function is called
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systemic or organ physiology
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The study of external features, such as bony projections that serve as landmarks to locate deeper structures is called
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surface anatomy
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Which of the following activities would represent a physiological study? observing the structure of the interior of the heart studying a model of the kidney examining the surface of a bone viewing muscle tissue through a microscope determining normal blood sugar levels for 20 year old students
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determining normal blood sugar levels for 20 year old students
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Microscopic examination of a frozen tissue specimen is an application of which of the following disciplines?
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histology
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Visual inspection of the appearance of the liver and gallbladder during surgery is associated with which of the following?
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gross anatomy
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Which subdivision of anatomy involves the study of organs that function together?
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systemic anatomy
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Anatomy is
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the study of structure
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Systemic anatomy is
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the study of the body by systems
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Cytology is
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the study of the structural features of cells
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Surface anatomy is
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the study of the external form of the body and its relation to deeper structures
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Histology is
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the study of tissues the study of the external form of the body and its relation to deeper structures
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Regional anatomy is
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the study of the body's organization by areas
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A cell is
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the smallest unit of life.
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A group of cells with similar structure and function describes
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tissue
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An organ is
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a structure composed of two or more tissues that perform a common function.
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Consider the following structural levels: chemical, organ, tissue, cell, and organ system. Which level encompasses the other four?
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organ system
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A tissue is
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a group of cells with similar structure and function.
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Given these structures: 1. Cell 2. Organ 3. Chemical 4. Organ system 5. Organism 6. Tissue Arrange the structures in the correct order from smallest to largest:
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Chemical, Cell, Tissue, Organ, Organ System, Organism
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An organ system is
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a group of organs, working together to perform a common functions.
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Which of these organ systems is involved in transporting gases in the body?
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cardiovascular system
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The system of the body that consists of the heart, blood vessels, and blood is the
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cardiovascular system
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The organ system that maintains tissue fluid balance, filters foreign material from blood and lymph, absorbs fats from the digestive tract, and combats disease is the
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lymphatic system
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The organ system that consists of glands such as the pituitary and thyroid glands and is a major regulatory system is the
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endocrine system
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The organ system that consists of the skin, hair, and nails, and protects the body and prevents water loss is the
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integumentary system
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Homeostasis is the condition produced by
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the tendency for change in a body parameter to be counteracted as soon as the body parameter goes past its normal value.
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Which of these is an example of a positive-feedback mechanism? 1. An increase in blood pressure activates mechanisms that decrease blood pressure. 2.Increased amounts of a hormone in the blood cause a decrease in the secretion of that hormone. 3.Increased carbon dioxide in the blood increases breathing rate, which decreases carbon dioxide in the blood. 4.Increased amounts of fluid in the blood result in increased quantities of urine, which decreases fluid content of the blood. 5. Increased stretch of the uterus causes it to contract, which further increases stretch.
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Increased stretch of the uterus causes it to contract, which further increases stretch.
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Which of these statements is true of negative feedback? - -Negative feedback makes any deviation from a normal value larger. -Negative feedback occurs when the uterus contracts during birth. -Negative feedback is a very unusual control mechanism in the human body. -Negative feedback will usually result in illness or other disturbance of normal systems.
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Negative feedback is important for maintaining homeostasis in the body.
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A researcher discovered a new hormone that raises blood calcium levels. According to the principles of negative feedback, this hormone would be secreted when blood calcium levels increase. blood calcium levels decrease. blood calcium levels are stable. blood calcium levels are elevated. none of the above.
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blood calcium levels decrease
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Homeostasis is defined as
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the maintenance of a relatively constant environment within the body
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When a capillary is damaged, a platelet plug is formed. The process involves platelets sticking to each other. The more platelets that stick together, the more the plug attracts additional platelets and the larger the plug becomes. This is an example of
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positive feedback
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Negative feedback always functions to make any deviation from homeostasis
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smaller
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In a negative feedback mechanism, the response of the effector
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reverses the original stimulus.
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A researcher discovered a sensory receptor that detects decreasing oxygen concentrations in the blood. According to the principles of negative feedback, it is likely that stimulation of this sensory receptor will produce which of the following types of responses. a decrease in heart rate an increase in the respiratory rate an increase in physical activity unconsciousness
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an increase in respiratory rate
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Which of the following is the most consistent with homeostasis? As blood pressure falls, blood flow to cardiac (heart) muscle decreases. As the mean blood pressure gradually increases in aging people, the blood vessel walls become thinner. Men working in a hot environment drink large quantities of water, and their urine volume increases. As body temperature decreases blood vessels in the periphery dilate. Elevated blood glucose levels cause insulin secretion (insulin causes cells to take up glucose) to increase.
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Elevated blood glucose levels cause insulin secretion (insulin causes cells to take up glucose) to increase.
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Which of the following is consistent with homeostasis? as body temperature rises, sweating occurs to cool the body when a person drinks large quantities of water, urine output decreases to raise blood volume elevated blood glucose levels cause insulin secretion to decline decreases in blood pressure cause a corresponding decrease in heart rate as blood pressure falls, blood flow to the heart decreases
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as body temperature rises, sweating occurs to cool the body
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How do you acquire critical thinking, or logical analysis skills?
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Critical thinking is a learned skill. This skill must follow rules that are intended to minimize the chances of error. The best way to acquire critical thinking, as with most learned skills, is to practice. Students of the sciences use the scientific method to practice, enhance, and execute this skill effectively.
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How do form a hypothesis?
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A student can form a hypothesis by observing a situation, identifying a pattern and forming an educated guess or hypothesis as to why that pattern exists and repeats itself. For a hypothesis to be considered valid it must meet three criteria. It must be testable, unbiased, and repeatable. If a hypothesis does not meet a three criteria then it can not be considered a valid hypothesis.
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Discuss factors that influence the body's ability to maintain homeostasis.
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Maintaining homeostasis in the body depends on the status (or health) of the body's physiological systems and the nature (or type) of stress that is imposed on the body. If the body's mechanisms for coping with a stressor on the body and maintaining homeostasis fails, then physiological values shift and may drift outside of the normal range. When this occurs, these changes can affect other physiological systems with fatal results.
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Discuss six factors that may result in disease.
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Six factors that may result in disease are invading pathogens, inherited genetic conditions, loss of regulatory control mechanisms, degenerative changes, trauma/toxins/environmental hazards, and nutrition. Pathogens may invade the body and upset homeostasis. This is known as infection. When normal regulatory control mechanisms fail, this causes an unbalance in the body's environment. This can occur in the case of cancer which is linked to genes that would ordinarily control rates of cell division, but due to abnormalities have stopped functioning correctly. Without these regulations the cells multiply rapidly leading to unmaintained homeostasis. Degenerative changes occur as the body ages. This causes body systems to be less adaptable and less efficient. If aged patients are exposed to stresses that their weakened systems cannot tolerate, disease results. Environmental hazards, toxins and traumas affect homeostasis. All three conditions can damage and impair organs. This can lead to fatality if this is left untreated. Disease can result from a body not receiving adequate nutrition. Proper nutrition is essential for maintain homeostasis within the body.
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Why must you learn all of this "normal" anatomy and physiology?
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The study of normal anatomy and physiology is important to the diagnosis of disease because a clinician can not diagnose disease effectively without fully understanding normal anatomy and physiology. How would a clinician know if something were abnormal in a patient if they did not know what the normal constant was before examining a patient? In science it is necessary to establish a constant or baseline normal upon which to measure deviations or change. The study of normal anatomy and physiology is the beginning baseline for any clinician dealing with the human body. A clinician can not measure signs or symptoms without this knowledge. Without being able to observe basic changes in the anatomy and physiology of a patient, a clinician is unable to know which diagnostic tests to perform on a patient. This would lead to either failing to diagnose or misdiagnosing patients under the clinician's care. Basically, a clinician can not perform their task of diagnosing disease without a thorough study and understanding of normal anatomy and physiology.
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What is the "Scientific Method" and why is it important?
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The scientific method is a system of advancing knowledge that beings by proposing a hypothesis to answer a question, and then testing that hypostasis with data collected through observation and experimentation. This method is at the core of all scientific thought, including medical diagnosis.
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Describe anatomical position and state why it is important.
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When the body is in anatomical position, the body is erect, the hands are at the sides with the palms facing forward and fingers unfurled, and the feet are together. In the anterior view of anatomical position the front of the body is facing forward. The head is facing directly forward, arms are by the side with palms facing outward. The legs are straightened with the knees facing directly forward (NOT rolling laterally or medially) and the feet are together in neutral position (NEITHER in plantar flexion or dorsiflexion). In the posterior view of anatomical position the body would be in the same position as described in the anterior view except that you would see the body from the back. The backs of the hands would be seen from this position. A person lying face up in the anatomical position is described as supine. A person lying face down in the anatomical position is described as prone. A universal understanding of anatomical position is important because it provides a standard for medical professionals and scientists to go by when mapping anatomical structures, defining areas of the body for study, diagnosing medical issues with the body and describing the body to other professionals in these fields. A universal understanding of anatomical position ensures that there is no confusion in communication between medical and science professionals.
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Anterior
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The front surface
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Ventral
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The belly surface (anterior in the human body)
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Posterior
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The back surface
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Dorsal
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The pack ( posterior in the human body)
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Contralateral
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On opposite sides
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Ipsilateral
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On same side
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Cranial
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Toward the head (also cephalic)
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Cephalic
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Toward the head(also cranial)
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Superior
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At a higher level (toward the head in the human body)
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Caudal
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Toward the tail (coccyx in the human body)
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Inferior
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At a lower level (toward the feet in the human body)
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Medial
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Toward the midline or midsagital plane
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Lateral
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Away from the midline or midsagital plane
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Proximal
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Nearest to attachment site
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Distal
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Farther from attachment
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Superficial
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At, near, or relatively close to the body surface
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Deep
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Toward the interior of the body, farther from the surface
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Prone
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To lie with the anterior surface down
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Supine
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To lie with the anterior surface facing up
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Abdominal
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Abdominal (front of trunk below diaphragm.
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Acromial
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Shoulder
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Antebrachial
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Forearm
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Antecubital
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Anterior elbow
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Axillary
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Armpit
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Brachial
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Arm (shoulder to elbow)
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Buccal
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Cheek
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Calcaneal
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Heel or foot
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Carpal
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Wrist
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Cephalic
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Head
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Cervical
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Neck
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Cranium
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Skull
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Crurual
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Front of leg from knee to ankle
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Cubital
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Elbow
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Digits
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Fingers or toes
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Phalanges
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Fingers or toes
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Dorsal
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Back
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Facial
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Face
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Femoral
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Thigh (pelvis to knee)
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Frontal
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Forehead
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Gluteal
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Buttock
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Hallux
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Great toe
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Inguinal
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Groin
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Lumbar
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Loin
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Mammary
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Breast
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Manual
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Hand
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Mental
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Chin
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Nasal
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Nose
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Olecranal
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Back (point) of the elbow
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Oral
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Mouth
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Orbital
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Eye socket (eye)
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Ocular
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Eye socket (eye)
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Otic
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Ear
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Palmar
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Palm of hand (wrist to fingers
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Patellar
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Kneecap
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Pedal
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Foot
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Pelvic
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Within the pelvis
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Plantar
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Sole of foot
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Pollex
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Thumb
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Popliteal
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Back of knee
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Pubic
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Pubis
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Sural
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Calf
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Tarsal
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Ankle
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Thoracic
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Chest or thorax
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Umbilical
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Navel
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abdominopelvic
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inferior to diaphragm: stomach, intestines, liver, gall bladder, spleen, pancreas, kidneys, reproductive organs, urinary bladder
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abdominal
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inferior to diaphragm and superior to pelvis: stomach, small intestine, large intestine, liver, gall bladder, spleen, pancreas, kidneys
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cranial
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within the skull:brain
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dorsal
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cranial and vertebral: brain and spinal cord
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mediastinum
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between pleural cavities: esophagus, trachea, thymus gland, pericardial sac, pericardial cavity, and heart
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middle ear
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within the temporal bones:ear ossicles
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nasal
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superior to oral cavity: nasal septum, conchae
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oral
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inferior to nasal cavity:tongue and teeth
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orbital
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anterior-superior skull: eyes
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pelvic
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within pelvis: reproductive organs, urinary bladder, and rectum
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pericardial
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mediastinum:heart
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peritoneal
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abdominal cavity:stomach, small intestine, large intestine, liver, gall bladder, spleen, pancreas, kidneys
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pleural
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lateral to mediastinum:lungs
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spinal
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within vertebrae:spinal cord
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synovial
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around movable joints:synovial fluid to reduce friction
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thoracic
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superior to diaphragm:esophagus, trachea, lungs, and heart
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ventral
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thoracic/abdominopelvic:abdominal and thoracic organs
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vertebral
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same as spinal: spinal cord
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visceral
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same as ventral cavity
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retroperitoneal
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location of an organ that is posterior to the parietal peritoneum
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How many quadrants is the abdomen divided into in regional anatomy?
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four
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Quadrant:Lower Left
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small intestine, descending colon, sigmoid colon, rectum, urinary bladder, reproductive organs
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Quadrant:Lower Right
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small intestine, cecum, appendix, ascending colon, rectum, urinary bladder, reproductive organs
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Quadrant:Upper Left
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spleen, stomach, pancreas, small intestine, transverse colon, descending colon, left kidney
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Quadrant: Upper Right
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liver, gall bladder, stomach, small intestine, ascending colon, transverse colon, right kidney
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The abdominopelvic region can be divided into how many regions when more detail is required?
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nine
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Region:epigastric
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liver, stomach, pancreas, transverse colon
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Region:left hypochondriac
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spleen, stomach, pancreas, left kidney, transverse colon
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Region:left inguinal(iliac)
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descending colon, sigmoid colon
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Region:left lumbar (lateral abdominal)
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small intestine, descending colon, left kidney
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Region:right hypochondriac
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liver, gall bladder, small intestine, ascending colon, transverse colon, right kidney
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Region:right inguinal (lateral abdominal)
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small intestine, appendix, cecum, ascending colon
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Region:right lumbar
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small intestine, ascending colon, right kidney
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hypogastric(pubic)
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small intestine, rectum, urinary bladder, rectum, reproductive organs
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umbilical
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small intestine, both kidneys
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Body cavities and surfaces are lined with what type of tissue?
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epithelium
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How many types of epithelium are there?
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four
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Serous membranes
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line cavities or cover organs that do not have any connection with the outside of the body. Named for the thin, watery fluid they secrete that lubricates various organs.
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mesentery
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double layered membrane attaching organs to abdominal wall
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parietal pericardium
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pericardial sac aroiund pericardial cavity
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parietal peritoneum
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lines abdominal cavity's walls
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parietal pleura
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lines walls of pleural cavities
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visceral pericardium
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surface of heart
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visceral peritoneum
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surface of most abdominal organs
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visceral pleura
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surface of the lungs
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Mucous membranes
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line cavities that have connections with the outside of the body. They secrete mucus that protects underlying tissues.
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Plane
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imaginary flat surface passing through the body or an organ
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frontal (coronal)
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divides body or organ into front and back parts
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sagittal
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divides body or organ into right and left sides
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midsagittal
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divides body or organ into equal right and left halves
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parasagittal
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divides body or organ into unequal right and left sides
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transverse
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cuts across the long axis of the body or organ
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oblique
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cuts an organ at an angle, not perpendicular to an axis
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