question

According to the definition of personality disorder, only individuals who show ________ patterns of maladaptive behavior should be diagnosed with a personality disorder. a. suicidal b. the most severe c. relatively permanent d. highly variable

answer

c

question

All of the following are necessary conditions for the diagnosis of a personality disorder EXCEPT a. patient feelings of distress. b. pervasive pattern of behavior. c. maladaptive functioning. d. chronicity.

answer

a

question

The gender difference in the diagnosis of histrionic personality disorder has been criticized for a. Reflecting society's inherent bias b. Not reflecting enough of the differences between men and women c. Being psychologists' plot to undermine their female colleagues d. All of the above.

answer

a

question

Unlike schizophrenia or an eating disorder, personality disorders can be viewed as disorders of a. biology rather than learning. b. learning rather than disease. c. degree rather than kind. d. functioning rather than disease.

answer

c

question

Some have proposed that the personality disorders be replaced or supplemented by a dimensional model in which individuals would be rated on a series of personality dimensions as well as a categorical diagnosis. It is believed that this would have advantages over a purely categorical system. Which of the following would be such an advantage? a. It would retain more information about each individual. b. It would be more flexible. c. It would avoid arbitrary decisions involved in assignment to a diagnostic category. d. All of the above

answer

d

question

What is one advantage of the categorical system over the dimensional system when it comes to classifying and diagnosing personality disorders? a. convenience b. accuracy c. communicability d. It is better as a prognostic tool

answer

a

question

DSM-5 personality disorders are grouped into three clusters. Which of the following most accurately represents the three clusters? a. Odd or eccentric; dangerous or inconsistent; shy, uncommunicative, or withdrawn b. Shy, uncommunicative, or withdrawn; anxious or fearful; dangerous or inconsistent c. Shy or withdrawn; dramatic, emotional, or erratic; bizarre or thought-disordered d. Odd or eccentric; dramatic, emotional, or erratic; anxious or fearful

answer

d

question

In the world, the prevalence of personality disorders is estimated to be approximately________ percent. a. 0.5 b. 2 c. 6 d. 11

answer

c

question

In the world, the prevalence of personality disorders is estimated to be approximately________ percent. a. 0.5 b. 2 c. 6 d. 11

answer

d

question

According to your textbook, the main reason that we do not have sufficient research examining the development of personality disorders is that a. many individuals do not seek treatment in the early phases of these disorders. b. there is insufficient research funding for these disorders, due to relative lack of public awareness. c. sophisticated research methods are necessary to study disorders that are so ingrained in personality. d. all of these are cited as key contributors to the lack of sufficient research.

answer

a

question

Research suggests that the gender differences observed in the prevalence of many personality disorders may be due to a. genetic differences. b. gender-specific learned behavior patterns. c. gender bias on the part of the diagnosing clinician. d. cultural scripts that dictate the type of disordered behavior appropriate for each gender.

answer

c

question

A woman demonstrating a high degree of Western "stereotypical female" traits might well be diagnosed with histrionic personality disorder. Which of the following would probably occur if a man demonstrated very stereotypical masculine traits? a. He would be diagnosed with antisocial personality disorder. b. He would be diagnosed with histrionic personality disorder. c. He would be diagnosed with narcissistic personality disorder. d. He probably would not be diagnosed with any personality disorder.

answer

d

question

The diagnosis of more than one personality disorder in an individual patient is a. common. b. impossible unless the person suffers from dissociative identity disorder. c. rare. d. only possible for personality disorders in the same DSM-5 cluster.

answer

a

question

Gender differences observed in the prevalence of many personality disorders may be due to a. tolerance of behavior in a culture. b. differences in help-seeking behavior. c. gender bias on the part of the diagnosing clinician. d. all of the above

answer

d

question

Max is always sure that others are trying to harm him. His perception that the world is a threatening place impacts most of his life. Most likely, Max would be diagnosed with the personality disorder called a. histrionic. b. avoidant. c. paranoid. d. antisocial.

answer

c

question

An individual requesting treatment at a mental health clinic keeps talking about how gangsters are "out to get him." Before diagnosing paranoid personality disorder, we must determine whether a. his fears are justified. b. his family life is stable. c. he has ever attempted suicide. d. he avoids socialization.

answer

a

question

The language barrier of refugees from other countries and people with hearing impairments may make these individuals particularly susceptible to a. histrionic personality disorder. b. paranoid personality disorder. c. schizotypal personality disorder. d. schizoid personality disorder.

answer

b

question

You are waiting to board a plane when you hear that the flight has been delayed due to a passing thunderstorm. The man sitting next to you says, "Passing thunderstorm, sure! That's Jim again, he's been doing everything to make me miss this meeting because he's trying to get me fired!" Of the following, this statement would be most consistent with ________ personality disorder. a. avoidant b. histrionic c. borderline d. paranoid

answer

d

question

One of the greatest challenges for any therapist treating an individual with paranoid personality disorder is in a. understanding the patient's belief system. b. earning the patient's trust. c. convincing the patient to talk about his or her beliefs. d. getting the patient to speak clearly.

answer

b

question

The data regarding treatment outcome for individuals with paranoid personality disorder a. indicate clients do not remain in therapy long enough for treatment success. b. suggest that treatment can only be successful if the patient remains in therapy for a minimum of one year. c. indicate that cognitive therapy is effective in most cases. d. demonstrate that strict behavioral approaches are effective.

answer

a

question

A person with paranoid personality disorder may a. mistrust other people. b. get into arguments with people. c. be quiet and withdrawn. d. all of the above

answer

d

question

Theo is quite a loner. He walks to class by himself, does not talk to anyone, and appears indifferent to other people. It is clear that Theo neither desires nor enjoys closeness with others. He does not act in any obviously unusual ways, nor does he appear to possess strange beliefs about the world. Of the following personality disorders, Theo appears to be a. avoidant. b. antisocial. c. schizotypal. d. schizoid.

answer

c

question

An individual who goes through life as a loner with no motivation to interact with others but with relatively normal behavior and beliefs is likely to be diagnosed with ________ personality disorder. a. histrionic b. narcissistic c. schizoid d. paranoid

answer

c

question

One prevalent outcome for individuals with schizoid personality disorder is a. homelessness. b. drug abuse. c. eating disorders. d. anxiety.

answer

a

question

Patients diagnosed with schizoid personality disorder a. often request treatment and generally make progress quickly. b. often request treatment but generally make little progress. c. rarely request treatment except in response to a crisis. d. rarely request treatment but generally make progress quickly while in therapy.

answer

c

question

Individuals who are socially isolated, behave in ways that seem unusual, tend to be suspicious, and have odd beliefs are generally diagnosed with ________ personality disorder. a. schizotypal b. schizoid c. paranoid d. multiple

answer

a

question

Individuals who have "ideas of reference" but who sense that these beliefs are probably unrealistic are generally diagnosed with ________ personality disorder. a. schizotypal b. paranoid c. antisocial d. histrionic

answer

a

question

According to the textbook, a possible cause of schizotypal personality disorder is a. genetic. b. environmental. c. brain abnormalities. d. all of the above

answer

d

question

Hideki has been diagnosed with schizotypal personality disorder and has begun psychotherapy. Since he is willing to undergo a combined treatment approach, the result a. is excellent since most patients seeking treatment eventually are symptom free. b. may be a reduction in symptoms or postponement of schizophrenia. c. is excellent only if he is willing to take medication. d. is poor since most patients go on to develop schizophrenia.

answer

b

question

The personality disorder that shares many similar symptoms with schizophrenia is a. schizoid. b. paranoid. c. borderline. d. schizotypal.

answer

d

question

According to the textbook, the most likely cause of schizotypal personality disorder is a. poor parenting. b. social modeling. c. biological. d. isolation during childhood.

answer

c

question

As many as 30 to 50 percent of the individuals with schizotypal personality disorder who request clinical help also meet the criteria for a. obsessive-compulsive disorder. b. substance disorder. c. anorexia. d. major depressive disorder.

answer

d

question

Steve steals money from his friends and family, lies to get what he wants, and often hurts others with no sign of guilt or remorse. Steve would most likely be diagnosed with ________ personality disorder. a. paranoid b. histrionic c. antisocial d. narcissistic

answer

c

question

An adult diagnosed with antisocial personality disorder is most likely to have met the criteria for ________ as a child. a. autism b. conduct disorder c. a learning disability d. Attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder

answer

b

question

Rob is a 13-year-old boy who has been repeatedly arrested for theft and assault. In addition to shoplifting and other theft, he has been caught stealing money from his parents' wallets and his young sister's piggy bank. Rob shows no guilt or remorse for the many ways that he hurts others. Rob's current diagnosis is most likely a. antisocial personality disorder. b. attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. c. conduct disorder. d. narcissistic personality disorder.

answer

c

question

The research examining the cause of antisocial personality disorder suggests that a. the primary cause is genetics. b. genetics and environment interact to cause the disorder. c. the primary cause is poor parenting. d. there is no evidence of either a genetic or environmental cause.

answer

b

question

Which of the following are the two major theories that have been proposed to explain antisocial personality disorder? a. Underarousal and fearlessness b. Underarousal and shamelessness c. overarousal and fearlessness d. overarousal and shamelessness

answer

a

question

Which of the following prevention strategies looks promising for children who are at risk for later antisocial personality disorder? a. A training program for parents of toddlers (ages 1½ to 2½ years) b. A program for families with a high degree of family dysfunction c. A program for families where at least one parent has a history of antisocial personality disorder d. All of the above

answer

a

question

According to the underarousal hypothesis, individuals with antisocial personality disorder may engage in their characteristic behaviors as a way to a. deal with their fears. b. provide a level of stimulation that most of us receive from more typical behaviors. c. provide a sense of relief from the feelings of depression that they experience when they are not highly aroused. d. reduce the generally high level of arousal that they feel.

answer

b

question

The concept of the fearlessness hypothesis of antisocial personality disorder is that individuals with this disorder a. learn to avoid punishment. b. have an underactive cortex. c. under-react to the threat of punishment. d. have brain damage that inhibits their ability to understand the implications of their actions.

answer

c

question

One prominent theory of antisocial personality disorder suggests that the behaviors are caused by an imbalance between the brain's a. behavioral inhibition system and fight-or-flight system. b. fight-or-flight system and reward system. c. cortical stimulation system and behavioral inhibition system. d. behavioral inhibition system and reward system.

answer

d

question

If you had absolutely no concept or fear of the consequences of your actions (for yourself or others) and were overly motivated by pleasing yourself, you might behave like a person with ________ personality disorder. a. antisocial b. narcissistic c. histrionic d. schizotypal

answer

a

question

One of the contributing factors in the developmental history of individuals with antisocial personality disorder appears to be that their parents were more likely to have utilized a. firm discipline. b. inconsistent discipline. c. an overly protective parenting style. d. physical discipline.

answer

b

question

The criminal behavior of those diagnosed with antisocial personality disorder tends to a. continue to increase throughout the lifespan. b. increase dramatically at about age 30. c. decline significantly around age 40. d. remain stable throughout the lifespan.

answer

c

question

One of the major problems with treating people with personality disorders is a. They rarely identify themselves as needing treatment b. Research suggests that the disorders are almost entirely based in biology and therefore difficult to treat interpersonally c. Personality disorders are so rare that there is very little research on their treatment d. They are extremely unpredictable and difficult to manage in therapy sessions

answer

a

question

Which of the following is an accurate statement regarding the treatment of antisocial personality disorder and related antisocial behaviors? a. Patients are generally willing participants in their therapy. b. Most patients refer themselves for treatment because they recognize that they have a problem. c. There has been greater success in reducing antisocial behavior in children than in adults. d. Therapy is successful in about half of the cases treated.

answer

c

question

According to the DSM-5, the features of antisocial personality disorder include a. instances of physical cruelty to animals. b. an attitude of entitlement toward fulfilling expectations. c. a demonstrated impulsivity or failure to plan ahead. d. episodes of inappropriate, intense anger.

answer

c

question

Lenny is 25 years old and has had multiple arrests for assaults, theft, and drug use. He has hurt strangers, friends, and family and has never shown any remorse or regret. Following his last arrest, Lenny met with a social worker who told him about antisocial personality disorder; he is now convinced that that is "what's wrong" with him. Lenny recently went to a local community mental health center and asked to be treated by a psychotherapist. The problem with this story is that a. individuals with antisocial personality disorder do not generally seek treatment. b. Lenny has misdiagnosed himself, since his behaviors are more typical of conduct disorder. c. the drug use does not fit the pattern of antisocial personality disorder. d. the description does not fit any known personality disorder.

answer

a

question

Which of the following statements is true about borderline personality disorder? a. It is observed in every culture and seen in about 5 percent of the population. b. Emotional dysfunction is one of the best predictors of suicide in this group. c. Long-term outcomes are discouraging, with many relapsing within five years d. A high number, almost 12 percent, complete suicide.

answer

b

question

The personality disorder characterized by extreme instability in behavior and emotion, impulsivity, depression, and self-injurious behaviors is ________ personality disorder. a. narcissistic b. borderline c. dependent d. histrionic

answer

b

question

Nicole has difficulty maintaining relationships because she goes back and forth from being a best friend to hating people in her life. Her romantic relationships are always characterized by incredible loving passion alternating with episodes of horrible fighting, and sometimes she becomes violent. At times, Nicole becomes so upset that she cuts herself and reports that this makes her feel better emotionally. Nicole suffers from ________ personality disorder. a. dependent b. histrionic c. borderline d. narcissistic

answer

c

question

All of the following are common disorders tend to be comorbid with borderline personality disorder EXCEPT a. depression. b. substance abuse. c. bulimia. d. obsessive-compulsive disorder.

answer

d

question

The approximate percentage of individuals diagnosed with borderline personality disorder who also have a substance related disorder is almost ____ percent. a. 10 b. 40 c. 70 d. 100

answer

c

question

One of the influences that has been associated with the development of borderline personality disorder is a. a history of child abuse or neglect. b. a developmental delay for major milestones (i.e., walking, talking). c. parental alcoholism. d. deficits in neurotransmitter circuits involving dopamine.

answer

a

question

When presented with words projected on a computer screen, individuals with borderline personality disorder are more likely than individuals without the disorder to remember the word a. celebrate. b. abandon. c. death. d. charming.

answer

b

question

Which of the following is the most likely model to explain the cause of borderline personality disorder? a. Biological b. Early trauma resulting in posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms that are not recognized or dealt with during childhood c. Stressful life events d. Biological predisposition interacting with life events such as childhood trauma and later life stressors

answer

d

question

Research regarding psychological treatment for borderline personality disorder suggests that ________ appears to be helpful in improving mood and reducing suicidal and self-injurious behaviors. a. dialectical behavior therapy b. cognitive therapy c. operant conditioning d. nothing

answer

a

question

The psychological treatment that has been found to have significant effectiveness in helping patients with borderline personality disorder centers on a. regressing patients to the time in their lives when they experienced trauma. b. removing the reinforcing attention that they have received for their disordered behavior in the past. c. enrolling them in a 12-step program such as Alcoholics Anonymous. d. learning to cope with life stressors in a more effective manner.

answer

d

question

Individuals who overreact to everything and are overly dramatic and vain are most likely to be diagnosed with ________ personality disorder. a. borderline b. histrionic c. narcissistic d. dependent

answer

b

question

Amy quickly becomes the center of attention when she enters a room. She is a tall and attractive young woman who generally wears something striking. Amy is known as a flirt and acts in a seductive manner around men. When Amy speaks, she uses very exaggerated terms, even when describing relatively ordinary situations. Amy's diagnosis is most likely ________ personality disorder. a. histrionic b. narcissistic c. borderline d. dependent

answer

a

question

When Axel arrives late for class, he walks in with a grand entrance and apologizes to the professor and the students in class. He proceeds to tell them he had every intention of being at class on time, but the traffic was terrible and many accidents occurred, which delayed him. Axel describes this in much exaggerated detail before he takes his seat. This commonly happens every time he is late. Axel could be diagnosed with which personality disorder? a. Histrionic b. Narcissistic c. Borderline d. Borderline

answer

a

question

According to your text, the most accurate statement regarding the treatment of histrionic personality disorder is that a. there are no scientific studies demonstrating success. b. patients who voluntarily attend therapy tend to get better. c. strict behavioral programs have been shown to be effective in scientific research. d. cognitive therapy is most effective.

answer

a

question

One of the likely problems a therapist may encounter while trying to help a patient with histrionic personality disorder is the patient's a. unwillingness to admit there is a problem. b. use of threatening language. c. lack of intellectual ability necessary to succeed in therapy. d. manipulative use of crying, charm, or seductive behavior.

answer

d

question

Narcissistic personality disorder is characterized by a. preoccupation with other people. b. obsession with keeping things neat and orderly. c. thinking of oneself as deserving of special treatment. d. pathological dishonesty.

answer

c

question

People with narcissistic personality disorder display all of the following characteristics EXCEPT a. exploitation of others. b. happiness because they receive the adulation of others. c. demands for special attention. d. feelings of grandiosity.

answer

b

question

Which of the following statements is true about narcissistic personality disorder? a. This disorder is on the decline in Western societies. b. Reports of treatment success are limited. c. Recently there has been a great deal of research on this disorder. d. All of the above

answer

b

question

Vince is extremely impressed with himself. Although he has only achieved a moderate amount of success, he thinks of himself as being uniquely special and deserving of the best of everything. Vince fantasizes frequently about great wealth and fame and does not really pay much attention to other people except to note how they react to him. Vince would most likely be diagnosed with ________ personality disorder. a. antisocial b. histrionic c. narcissistic d. dependent

answer

c

question

One reason why individuals with narcissistic personality disorder tend to become depressed at times is that they a. become upset when their intimate relationships fail. b. seldom live up to their unrealistic expectations of themselves. c. are overly sensitive to the pain of others. d. don't think they will achieve success in life.

answer

b

question

Which of the following statements accurately describes treatment for narcissistic personality disorder? a. Narcissistic personally disorder treatment is often combined with treatment for severe depressive episodes. b. The treatment is often focused on the patient's grandiosity and hypersensitivity. c. Cognitive therapy aimed at replacing the patient's hedonistic fantasies with day-to-day pleasurable experiences that are truly attainable are a focus of the treatment. d. All of these

answer

d

question

All of the following are mentioned in your text as appropriate treatment strategies for narcissistic personality disorder EXCEPT a. cognitive therapy to replace grandiose fantasies with more realistic goals. b. coping strategies to help accept criticism. c. exploration of early life trauma that led to the disorder. d. being helped to focus on the feelings of others.

answer

c

question

The reason that individuals with avoidant personality disorder avoid most relationships is that they a. are extremely sensitive to the opinions of others and fear rejection. b. generally dislike other people and prefer to be alone. c. are so stimulated by the fantasy life in their own minds that they have little need for the company of others. d. experience bizarre thoughts and beliefs that distance them from others.

answer

a

question

Without understanding the thought process motivating the patient's behavior, it would probably be impossible to determine whether a patient had ________ personality disorder or ________ personality disorder. a. narcissistic; antisocial b. dependent; narcissistic c. borderline; histrionic d. schizoid; avoidant

answer

d

question

Individuals who keep to themselves because they are anxious and fearful of rejection are likely to be diagnosed with ________ personality disorder. a. avoidant b. schizoid c. schizotypal d. antisocial

answer

a

question

When asked about their childhood, individuals diagnosed with avoidant personality disorder tend to remember their parents as a. warm and loving. b. substance abusing. c. rejecting. d. depressed.

answer

c

question

Of the following, the most accurate statement with regard to the treatment of avoidant personality disorder is that a. no well-controlled studies of treatment outcomes have been conducted. b. there are well-controlled studies, though none show any treatment success. c. individuals with this disorder are seldom sufficiently motivated to succeed in treatment. d. behavioral intervention programs for anxiety and social skills have had some success.

answer

d

question

In Jill's psychotherapy sessions, the therapist has been using systematic desensitization to gradually make her more comfortable with social situations. Similar to the treatments used for individuals with social phobia, the therapist has given Jill homework assignments that require her to practice talking to strangers, join informal groups, and speak in front of small groups. Most likely, she is being treated for ________ personality disorder. a. avoidant b. dependent c. Antisocial d. histrionic

answer

a

question

The personality disorder characterized by unreasonable fear of abandonment, fear of being rejected, avoidance of disagreement, inability to make decisions for oneself, and clinging behavior is ________ personality disorder. a. dependent b. avoidant c. schizoid d. histrionic

answer

a

question

Harold lives with his mother with whom he is very close and agrees with everything she says. When he started seeing a young woman and the relationship became serious, his mother convinced him that his girlfriend was not good enough for him, so Harold stopped the relationship. He has two close friends who have been his friend since they met in kindergarten. Whenever they do something, it is always one of his friends who decides what they do. Harold just follows along. Harold likely suffers from _______________ personality disorder. a. Dependent b. Avoidant c. Schizoid d. Histrionic

answer

a

question

Mary has been married for 20 years and describes how her husband has been verbally abusive toward her for most of that time. She indicates that her husband has had multiple affairs with other women but she can't leave him because she "loves and needs him." When challenged by the interviewer regarding the wisdom of staying with such a man, Mary agrees with the interviewer, although she later confides that she always agrees with everyone to avoid conflict and disapproval. Mary should be diagnosed with ________ personality disorder. a. avoidant b. histrionic c. dependent d. borderline

answer

c

question

In terms of feelings of inadequacy, sensitivity to criticism, and need for reassurance, individuals with ________ personality disorder and ________ personality disorder are quite similar. a. dependent; avoidant b. dependent; schizoid c. schizoid; avoidant d. histrionic; antisocial

answer

a

question

Individuals who have excessive feelings of social inadequacy, sensitivity to criticism, and a need for reassurance are likely to develop either ________ personality disorder or ________ personality disorder. a. narcissistic; antisocial b. dependent; narcissistic c. avoidant; dependent d. antisocial; histrionic

answer

c

question

When individuals with dependent personality disorder are in therapy, they are a. seemingly "model" patients. b. resistant to the therapeutic process. c. too unstable to do the intellectual work that therapy requires. d. demanding and impulsive.

answer

a

question

Helen has been in therapy with Dr. Block for dependent personality disorder for the past three years. When she first came to therapy, she was in an abusive marriage and complained that her adult children treated her poorly and that people in her life "walked all over her." Helen has attended therapy religiously, been a "model" patient, and generally done everything that Dr. Block has suggested. At this time in her life, she is divorced, more assertive with her children, and generally feeling better about herself. Her current therapy sessions are often centered on everyday decisions for which she anxiously seeks Dr. Block's advice. The most appropriate next therapy step is a. immediate termination. b. working to reduce Helen's reliance on Dr. Block. c. a behavioral plan to increase Helen's socialization. d. exploration of the issues that made Helen seek therapy initially.

answer

b

question

According to the DSM-5, the features of dependent personality disorder include a. difficulty expressing disagreement. b. an attitude of entitlement toward fulfilling expectations. c. being easily influenced by others or circumstances. d. episodes of inappropriate, intense anger.

answer

a

question

The personality disorder that is characterized by an insistence that things have to be done "the right way" is ________ personality disorder. a. antisocial b. avoidant c. paranoid d. obsessive-compulsive

answer

d

question

A recent theory suggests that the psychological profiles of many serial killers point to the role of which psychological disorder? a. Schizophrenia b. Antisocial personality disorder c. Delusional disorder d. Obsessive-compulsive personality disorder

answer

d

question

Of the following, the most accurate statement regarding the cause of obsessive-compulsive personality disorder is that it appears to a. have a weak genetic contribution to the disorder. b. be found in those individuals with a strong predisposition toward structure in their lives. c. require parental reinforcement of conformity and neatness. d. all of the above

answer

d

question

Henry is viewed by many as a workaholic and not very social. He is at his desk every morning at 7:30 and takes few breaks (although these breaks are always at the same time every day). Henry is known to be a perfectionist. The problem is that he does not seem to get much accomplished, since he spends so much time making sure that everything is perfect before moving on to the next task. Henry appears to suffer from ________ personality disorder. a. avoidant b. obsessive-compulsive c. schizoid d. antisocial

answer

b

question

One of the major differences between individuals with obsessive-compulsive personality disorder and obsessive-compulsive disorder is that patients with the personality disorder generally a. have more obsessive thoughts. b. show more compulsive and ritualistic behaviors. c. do not have obsessive thoughts and compulsive behaviors. d. has more insight into their problems

answer

c

question

One unusual finding discussed in your text is that ________ personality disorder may have played a role in the behavior of several serial killers. a. narcissistic b. antisocial c. obsessive-compulsive d. schizotypal

answer

c

question

In the categorical vs. dimensional classification debate, supporters of the dimensional view of personality disorders believe this system is superior because a. there is too much overlap among the symptoms of the different disorders. b. the clusters help to categorize but are not based on scientific evidence. c. there is high comorbidity among the personality disorders d. all of the above

answer

d

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