question

Girolamo Savonarola

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(1452-1498) Dominican friar, attacked government of Florence (Lorenzo de' Medici), corruption of Pope Alexander VI, became religious leader of Florence, eventually excommunicated and executed by pope, shows that common people did not share worldly outlook of elite

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Petrarch

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(1304-1374) thought he was living at the start of a new era, new age of intellectual achievement, father of humanism

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Lorenzo Valla

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(1406-1457) humanist, defended pleasures of senses as the highest good, proved church documents false

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Giorgio Vasari

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(1511-1574), art historian

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Donatello

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(1386-1466) statues express an appreciation for the variety of human nature, revived classical figure

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Leonardo da Vinci

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(1452-1519) contributed to modern concept of artist as an original thinker, saw art from a scientific POV and science from an artistic POV, true "Renaissance man"

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Castiglione

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wrote The Courtier, sought to fashion the young gentleman into the courtly ideal, trained in physical, spiritual, intellectual and artistic pursuits

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Laura Cereta

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(1469-1499) humanist, had to choose between marriage or a life of study

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Niccolo Machiavelli

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(1469-1527), wrote The Prince, showed how a ruler should gain, maintain and increase his power, concludes that humans are inherently selfish, combine qualities of fox and lion, two basic ideas: one permanent social order reflecting God's ideals cannot be established and politics has its own laws and ought to be a science

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Thomas More

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(1478-1535), wrote Utopia, presents a revolutionary view of society, believed society's flawed institutions were responsible for corruption and war, necessary to reform social institutions that molded the individual

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Erasmus

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(1466-1536), believed education was the means to reform, and that Christianity is Christ's life, humanist

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Martin Luther

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(1483-1546), articulated the widespread desire for reform of church and deep yearning for salvation, very conscientious friar, but doubted the value of the monastic life, troubled by sale of indulgences, writes 95 Theses and launches Protestant Reformation

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John Tetzel

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friar appointed to sell indulgences

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Ulrich Zwingli

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(1484-1531), introduced Protestant Reformation in Switzerland, convinced that Christian life rested on the Scriptures

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John Calvin

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(1509-1564) developed Calvinism, believed in predestination-God selects certain people for salvation and condemns the rest, emphasized the absolute sovereignty and omnipotence of God and total weakness of humanity, held Genevans to a high standard of morality, emphasized aggressive, vigorous activism

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John Knox

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(1505-1572), dominated movement for reform, persuaded Scottish parliament to enact legislation ending papal authority

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Ignatius Loyola

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(1491-1556) founded the Jesuit order, goal to help souls, spread Christian ideals through education

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Prince Henry "the Navigator"

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(1394-1460) established a school for the study of geography, sent expeditions down the coast of Africa

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Christopher Columbus

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discovered the New World, cruel and ineffective governor of Spain's Caribbean colony, sought a more direct route to the East Indies, laid the foundation for Spanish imperial administration in the Canary Islands

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Ferdinand Magellan

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(1480-1521), commissioned by Charles V to find a direct route to the spices of Molucca off the southeast coast of Asia, proved the earth was round and much larger than Columbus had estimated

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Hernando Cortes

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(1485-1547), conquered the Aztec Empire, subjugated northern Mexico

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Francisco Pizarro

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(1470-1541), conquered the Inca Empire in Peru, established the Spanish viceroyalty in Peru

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Michel de Montaigne

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(1533-1592), introduced early modern skepticism, developed the essay to express his thoughts and ideas

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William Shakespeare

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(1564-1616), most famous playwright of all time, original characters, great understanding of human psychology, diverse plots, unexcelled gift for language, appreciated classical culture, individualism and humanism

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Peter Paul Rubens

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(1577-1640), representative of the baroque painters, colorful style characterized by animated figures, melodramatic contrasts and monumental size, enormously successful

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Richelieu

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(1585-1642), ruled as regent in place of Louis XIII, set in place the cornerstone of French absolutism, reshuffled royal council to curb the power of the nobility, established intendant system—intendants appointed directly by the monarch, solely responsible to him, enforced royal orders and weakened the power of the nobility, established French Academy to standardize language

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Jean-Baptiste Colbert

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(1619-1683), appointed minister of finance by Louis XIV, applied system of mercantilism to France, believed France should be self-sufficient, attempted to accomplish this through state support of industries, created a powerful merchant marine to transport French goods, hoped to make Canada part of a vast French empire

question

Moliere

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(1622-1673), French playwright, plays that followed classical models but were based on careful social observation, made bourgeoisie the butt of his ridicule

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Jean Racine

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(1639-1699), plays that analyzed the power of love, based on Greek and Roman legends, focused on the conflict of good and evil

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Gaspar de Guzman, Count-Duke of Olivares

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appointed administrator of Spain by Philip IV, devised new sources of revenue

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Miguel de Cervantes

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(1547-1616), wrote Don Quixote, characterized 17th c. Spain

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William Laud

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(1573-1645), archbishop of Canterbury, insisted on complete uniformity in church services, attempted to impose a new book of prayer on Scotland in 1637, the Scots revolted

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John Locke

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(1632-1704), wrote Second Treatise of Civil Government, maintained that people set up civil governments to protect life, liberty and property, a government that oversteps this is a tyranny and must be overthrown, also wrote Essay Concerning Human Understanding, put forth the tabula rasa theory, which suggests that all ideas are derived from experience

question

Nicolaus Copernicus

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(1473-1543), felt that Ptolemy's rules for the movement of the planets detracted from the majesty of a perfect universe, preferred the idea that the sun, not the Earth, was the center of the universe, suggested a universe of staggering size, destroyed idea of crystal spheres, attacked by religious leaders, events brought credibility to the Copernican hypothesis (new star, new comet)

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Tycho Brahe

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(1546-1601), established himself as Europe's leading astronomer, collected a mass of data, believed that all planets revolved around the sun and that system revolved around the earth-moon system

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Johannes Kepler

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(1571-1630), made sense of Brahe's observations, formulated three laws of planetary motion: 1) orbits of planets are elliptical, 2) planets do not move at a uniform speed in their orbits, 3) the time a planet takes to complete its orbit is precisely related to its distance from the sun

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Galileo Galilei

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(1564-1642), challenged old ideas about motion, elaborated on and consolidated the experimental method, now people could conduct controlled experiments, formulated the law of inertia, which explained that an object continues in motion forever until stopped by an external force, applied experimental method to astronomy

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Isaac Newton

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(1642-1727), united experimental and theoretical/mathematical sides of science, created a set of mathematical laws to explain motion and mechanics, created the law of universal gravitation

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Francis Bacon

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(1561-1626), argued that new knowledge had to be pursued through empirical, experimental research, formulated empirical method, claimed it would result in highly practical knowledge

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Rene Descartes

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(1596-1650), discovered analytic geometry, showed that geometric figures could be expressed as algebraic equations and vice versa, established Cartesian dualism, which reduced everything to physical and spiritual entities

question

Bernard de Fontenelle

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(1657-1757), sought to make science witty and entertaining to a borad non-scientific audience, helped bring science into conflict with religion, skeptical about absolute truth and the claims of organized religion

question

Pierre Bayle

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(1647-1706), skeptic, French Huguenot who found refuge in the Netherlands, examined religious persecutions and beliefs of the past in his Historical and Critical Dictionary, concluded that nothing can be known beyond all doubt, believed in open minded toleration

question

Montesquieu

answer

(1689-1755), used wit as a weapon against cruelty and superstition, applied critical method to government in The Spirit of Laws, argued that despotism could be avoided through a separation of powers, believed a strong, independent upper class was very important

question

Voltaire

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(1694-1778), struggled against legal injustice and unequal treatment before the law, shared Montesquieu's enthusiasm for English institutions, mixed glorification of science and reason with an appeal for better institutions and individuals, did not believe in social and economic equality in human affairs, challenged Christianity, believed in a deistic God (the great Clockmaker), hated all forms of religious intolerance

question

Baron Paul d'Holbach

answer

(1723-1789), argued that human beings were machines completely determined by outside forces, deeply hostile toward religion

question

David Hume

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(1711-1776), argued that the human mind is nothing but a bundle of impressions which originate in sense experiences, reason cannot tell us anything that cannot be verified by sense experiences, undermined the Enlightenment's faith in reason

question

Jean-Jacques Rousseau

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(1712-1778), greatly influenced by Diderot and Voltaire, committed to individual freedom, felt civilization destroyed the individual, believed the general will reflected the common interests of the people, and that it must be interpreted by a small, far-seeing minority, called for greater love and tenderness towards children

question

Immanuel Kant

answer

(1724-1804), greatest German philosopher of the age, believed in freedom of the press

question

Maupeou

answer

appointed chancellor by Louis XV to crush the judicial opposition, abolished existing parlements

question

Cornelius Vermuyden

answer

most famous of Dutch drainage engineers, directed drainage projects in Yorkshire and Cambridgeshire, reclaimed 40,000 acres

question

Jethro Tull

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(1674-1741), tried to develop better methods of farming through empirical research, advocated using horses for plowing and sowing seed with drilling equipment

question

Adam Smith

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(1723-1790), established the basis for modern economics, opposed mercantilism, advocated free competition, believed the purpose of the government was for defense, maintenance of civil order and support of key social institutions, claimed market would be regulated by an "invisible hand"

question

Edward Jenner

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(1749-1823), collected data on the prevention of smallpox by cowpox, able to produce a vaccine for smallpox

question

Emmanuel Joseph Sieyes

answer

wrote What is the Third Estate?, argued that the nobility was a tiny, overprivileged minority and that the 3rd estate comprised the true strength of the French nation

question

Maximilien Robespierre

answer

(1758-1794), head of the Committee of Public Safety, organized the Reign of Terror, executed by guillotine during Thermidorian Reaction

question

Edmund Burke

answer

(1729-1797), criticized French Revolution, defended privileges of the monarchy and aristocracy, felt the revolution would only lead to chaos and tyranny

question

Mary Wollstonecraft

answer

(1759-1797), wrote A Vindication of the Rights of Man and A Vindication of the Rights of Women, firm feminist, demanded education for women, advocated female participation in politics and an expansion of women's rights

question

Joseph Fouche

answer

left in charge of the police state by Napoleon, organized a spy system to root out subversive people and potential opponents to Napoleon's regime

question

James Watt

answer

(1736-1819), invented a more efficient steam engine, added a separate condenser to improve the Newcomen engine, solved the crisis of energy for Britain

question

Thomas Malthus

answer

(1766-1834), wrote Essay on the Principle of Population, argued that population would always outstrip the food supply, believed people should marry later in life to reduce population growth

question

David Ricardo

answer

(1772-1823), suggested the iron law of wages, which suggested that the pressure of population growth would always cause wages to sink to subsistence level

question

John Cockerill

answer

built cotton-spinning equipment in Belgium, established modern ironworks, coal mines and built an industrial factory which produced locomotives and machinery

question

Fritz Harkort

answer

business pioneer in the German machinery industry, built steam engines, imported materials from England, ambition resulted in large financial losses

question

Frederich List

answer

(1789-1846), believed the growth of modern industry was of utmost importance, improved people's well-being and reduced poverty, believed promoting industry ensured national security, supported formation of the Zollverein among the German states, advocated a high protective tariff to protect domestic industry

question

Friedrich Engels

answer

(1820-1895), wrote The Condition of the Working Class in England, claimed industrial capitalism had caused a dramatic increase in poverty, later the colleague of Karl Marx, wrote The Communist Manifesto

question

Robert Owen

answer

(1771-1858), manufacturer in Scotland, believed employing children under 10 was detrimental to them and did not benefit factory owners, organized the Grand National Consolidated Trades Union, collapsed

question

Count Henri de Saint-Simon

answer

(1760-1825), socialist, believed the parasites (aristocrats, lawyers, churchmen) of society must give way to the doers (scientists, engineers, industrialists), doers would carefully guide and plan the economy through public works projects

question

Charles Fourier

answer

(1772-1837), advocated a socialist utopian made up of self-sufficient communities, supported the total emancipation of women, criticized marriage

question

Louis Blanc

answer

(1811-1882), emphasized practical improvements, believed the state should set up workshops to reduce unemployment

question

Pierre Joseph Proudhon

answer

(1809-1865), wrote What is Property?, argued that property was profit stolen from the workers, considered an anarchist

question

Karl Marx

answer

(1818-1883), published The Communist Manifesto with Friedrich Engels, believed the interests of the proletariat and the bourgeoisie were inevitably opposed, proletariat would triumph in a violent revolution

question

Georg Hegel

answer

(1770-1831), believed each age is characterized by a dominant set of ideas, giving history pattern and purpose

question

William Wordsworth

answer

(1770-1850), literary romanticist, used language of ordinary speech, wrote poems about simple subjects, simplicity and love of nature

question

Walter Scott

answer

(1771-1832), personified romantic movement's fascination with history, re-created the spirit of historical events

question

Victor Hugo

answer

(1802-1885), wrote lyric poetry, amazing range of rhythm, language and image, equated freedom in literature with social and political liberty

question

Eugene Delacroix

answer

(1798-1863), greatest romantic painter in France, painted dramatic, colorful scenes that stirred the emotions

question

Joseph M. W. Turner

answer

(1775-1851), notable English romantic painter, depicted nature's power and terror

question

John Constable

answer

(1776-1821), English romantic painter, painted gentle landscapes in which human beings were at peace with their environments

question

Ludwig van Beethoven

answer

(1770-1827), composer, used contrasting themes and tones to create drama

question

Edwin Chadwick

answer

one of the commissions charged with relief to paupers, Benthamite, realized disease and death caused poverty, believed disease could be prevented by cleaning up the urban environment, reports became the basis of Britain's first public health law, believed in the miasmatic theory of disease

question

Louis Pasteur

answer

(1822-1895), developed the germ theory of disease, found that the growth of bacteria could be suppressed by heat (pasteurization)

question

Joseph Lister

answer

(1827-1912), found connection between aerial bacteria and wound contamination, developed anti-septic principle

question

Georges Haussmann

answer

(1809-1884), appointed by Napoleon III to reorganize Paris, razed buildings to create wide boulevards (prevent easy construction of barricades), demolished slums, created parks and open spaces, improved water supply system

question

Auguste Comte

answer

(1798-1857), French philosopher, wrote System of Positive Philosophy, postulated that all intellectual activity passes through predictable stages, developed positivist method, a discipline of sociology

question

Jean Baptiste Lamarck

answer

(1744-1829), believed all forms of life had arisen through a process of continuous adjustment to the environment, flawed-believed characteristics acquired by parents over the course of their lives could be inherited by their children

question

Charles Darwin

answer

(1809-1882), all life had evolved from a constant struggle for survival, believed that chance differences among members of a certain species allowed them to survive, variations eventually spread to entire species

question

Herbert Spencer

answer

(1820-1903), Social Darwinist, saw the human race as driven toward ever greater specialization in the brutal economic struggle

question

Emile Zola

answer

(1840-1902), realist writer, violently criticized social situation, strict determinist, famous for animalistic view of working class life, sympathized with socialism

question

Honore de Balzac

answer

(1799-1850), wrote a panorama of post-revolutionary French life, characterize society is grasping, amoral, brutal, Darwinian struggle for wealth and power

question

Gustave Flaubert

answer

(1821-1880), accuracy of psychological insight, portrays provincial middle class as petty, smug and hypocritical

question

Leo Tolstoy

answer

(1828-1910), greatest Russian realist, probed deeply into the lives of his characters, fatalistic theory of history, regarded free will as an illusion

question

Cavour

answer

dominant figure in Sardinia government 1850-1861, worked to consolidate Sardinia as a liberal constitutional state capable of leading northern Italy, worked for a secret diplomatic alliance with Napoleon III against Austria, regained Napoleon's support by ceding Savoy and Nice to France

question

Giuseppe Garibaldi

answer

(1807-1882), personified the romantic, revolutionary nationalism of Mazzini, aimed to "liberate" the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, his Red Shirts roused the peasants and conquered Sicily

question

Sergei Witte

answer

Russian minister of finance 1892-1903, believed industrial backwardness threatened Russia's power and greatness, encouraged building of railroads, established high protective tariffs to build domestic industry, put the country on the gold standard to strengthen Russia finances, used the West to catch up with the West

question

Leon Gambetta

answer

moderate republican leader, preached a republic of truly equal economic opportunity, established absolute parliamentary supremacy in 1877 and 1879

question

Benjamin Disraeli

answer

(1804-1881), extended the vote to all middle class males, aimed to broaden the Conservative party's traditional base of aristocratic and landed support

question

William Gladstone

answer

(1809-1898), Liberal prime minister, introduced bills to give Ireland self-government that failed to pass

question

Edward Bernstein

answer

(1850-1932), revisionist, argued that Marx's predictions had proved false, suggested socialists should combine with progressive forces to win gradual evolutionary gains for workers through legislation, unions and further economic development

question

Muhammad Ali

answer

(1769-1849), appointed governor of Egypt by Turkish government, built his state on the strength of an army organized along European lines, reformed the government and improved communications, established a strong and virtually independent Egyptian state, encouraged the development of commercial agriculture

question

Ismail

answer

succeeded his father as ruler of Egypt in 1863, promoted irrigation networks to stimulate production, supported construction of Suez Canal, established Arabic as official language, forced to allow Britain and France to oversee Egypt to pay its debts, abdicated in favor of his son, Tewfiq

question

Cecil Rhodes

answer

led British imperialism in Africa, conquered Bechuanaland (Botswana) and Rhodesia (Zimbabwe and Zambia), developed gold mines, laid the foundations for apartheid

question

Heinrich von Treitschke

answer

German nationalist historian, works reflected the growing aggressiveness of European imperialism

question

J. A. Hobson

answer

(1858-1940), criticized imperialism, felt it was caused by the needs of unregulated capitalism, argued that imperial possessions did not benefit the country as a whole, believed it diverted attention away from domestic reform, morally condemned whites ruling nonwhites

question

Walter Rathenau

answer

Jewish industrialist that sets up Germany's War Raw Materials Board, rations and distributes raw materials, produced substitutes essential to blockaded German war machine

question

Karl Liebknecht

answer

(1871-1919), radical socialist leader, holds a demonstration in Berlin, arrested and imprisoned

question

Rasputin

answer

self-proclaimed holy man, great influence over Tsarina Alexandra, treated son Alexei's hemophilia through hypnosis, murdered in December 1916

question

Frederich Nietzsche

answer

(1844-1900), German philosopher, believed West overemphasized rationality and stifled passion and creativity, questioned all values, claimed Christianity glorified weakness, envy and mediocrity, believed pillars of conventional morality needed to be replaced

question

Henri Bergson

answer

(1859-1941), French philosophy professor, believed immediate experience and intuition were as important as rational and scientific thinking

question

Georges Sorel

answer

(1847-1922), believed socialism would come to power in a general strike of the workers, who would be controlled by a small revolutionary elite

question

Ludwig Wittgenstein

answer

(1889-1951), Austrian philosopher, argued that philosophy is only the clarification of thoughts, great philosophical issues are a waste of time because conclusions reflect the opinions of individuals

question

Karl Barth

answer

(1886-1968), Swiss Protestant theologian, sought to re-create religious intensity of Reformation, felt humans were imperfect, sinful creatures, God's grace makes religious truth known to human beings

question

Gabriel Mercel

answer

(1887-1973), leading existential Christian thinker, found in the Catholic Church an answer to the "broken" post-war world, denounced anti-Semitism and sought closer ties with non-Catholics

question

Marie Curie

answer

(1867-1934), discovered that radium constantly emits subatomic particles and thus does not have a constant atomic weight

question

Max Planck

answer

(1858-1947), showed that atomic energy is emitted in uneven spurts called "quanta", called into question distinction between matter and energy

question

Albert Einstein

answer

(1879-1955), undermined Newtonian physics, theory of space relativity postulated that time and space are relative to the viewpoint of the observer, only the speed of light is constant for all frames of reference, stated that matter and energy are interchangeable, greatly expanded the world of physics

question

Ernest Rutherford

answer

(1871-1937), split the atom, identified the neutron as a subatomic particle, along with seven others

question

Werner Heisenberg

answer

(1901-1976), German physicist, formulated principle of uncertainty, impossible to know both the speed and location of an individual electron at the same time

question

Sigmund Freud

answer

(1856-1939), believed the human mind is basically irrational, controlled by id (irrational unconscious), ego (rationalizing conscious) and superego (ingrained moral values), mechanisms of traditional society and rationality restrain passion and sexual desires, received popular attention in 1918, undermined optimism about rational nature of human mind

question

Virginia Woolf

answer

(1882-1941), used stream-of-consciousness technique, series of internal monologues with ideas and emotions from varying time periods

question

William Faulkner

answer

(1897-1962), used stream-of-consciousness technique

question

James Joyce

answer

(1882-1941), used stream-of-consciousness technique, language of bewildering confusion intended to mirror modern life itself

question

Oswald Spengler

answer

(1880-1936), believed every culture experienced a life cycle of growth and decline, believed Asians would conquer Western civilization

question

TS Eliot

answer

(1888-1965), portrayed a world of growing desolation but eventually hoped cautiously for humanity's salvation

question

George Orwell

answer

(1903-1950), predicted a totalitarian utopian world, believed "absolute power corrupts absolutely"

question

Paul Ganguin

answer

(1848-1903), pioneered expressionist techniques, used them to infuse his work with tranquility and mysticism, believed the painter should not try to represent objects as the eye saw them

question

Paul Cezanne

answer

(1839-1906), committed to form and ordered design, later work increasingly abstract and non-representational, moved toward 2-D plane

question

Charlie Chaplin

answer

(1889-1978), king of the silver screen, symbolized spirit of laughter in an uncertain world, showed how film could combine mass entertainment and artistic accomplishment

question

Leni Riefenstahl

answer

(1902-2003), directed a powerful documentary of Germany's "Nazi Rebirth"

question

John Maynard Keynes

answer

(1883-1946), English economist, believed harsh reparations would impoverish Germany and increase economic hardship in all other European countries, only a complete revision of the treaty could save Europe, advocated the use of large-scale deficits to stimulate the economy

question

Gustav Stresemann

answer

(1878-1929), assumed control of German government in August 1923, called off passive resistance in the Ruhr and asked for a re-examination of reparations

question

Ramsay MacDonald

answer

(1866-1937)-governed England in 1924 and 1929, part of Labour party, supported by smaller Liberal party

question

Stanley Baldwin

answer

(1867-1947), led the Conservative party in GB, showed same compromising spirit on social issues

question

Karl Lueger

answer

(1844-1910), mayor of Vienna, succeeded in winning support of the people, greatly influenced Hitler, showed him the enormous potential of anticapitalist and antiliberal propaganda

question

Gandhi

answer

(1869-1948), built a mass movement preaching nonviolent "noncooperation" with the British, received a constitution in 1935, practically a blueprint for independence

question

Joseph Broz Tito

answer

(1892-1980), resistance leader and communist chief of Yugoslavia, able to resist Soviet domination successfully, allowed greater personal freedom

question

Alexander Dubcek

answer

(1921-1992), launched dramatic reforms in Czechslovakia, believed he could reconcile socialism with personal freedom and internal party democracy, relaxed controls and censorship, Russian troops invaded, forced to obey Soviet demands

question

Simone de Beauvoir

answer

(1908-1986), feminist, wrote The Second Sex, analyzed position of women through framework of existentialist thought, women trapped by limiting and inflexible conditions, must use courageous action and self-assertive creativity to break free

question

Betty Friedan

answer

(1924-), reopened discussion of women's issues in US, founded NOW

question

Lech Walesa

answer

(1943-), leader of Solidarity Movement in Poland, settled for minor government concessions, refused to use force to challenge directly Communist monopoly of power, elected president of Poland in 1989, made a clean break with state planning and moved quickly to market mechanisms and private property

question

Nicolae Ceausescu

answer

(1918-1989), Communist dictator in Romania, combined Stalinist brutality with independence from Moscow, defeated by protestors

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