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society

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a group of people who share a culture and live/interact with each other within a definable area

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sociology

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the study of how individuals interact with, shape, and are subsequently shaped by, the society in which they live

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functionalism

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the oldest of the main theories of sociology, this theory conceptualizes society as a living organism with many different parts and organs, each of which has a distinct purpose

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Émile Durkheim

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considered the father of sociology and a major proponent of functionalism, Émile Durkheim was the pioneer of modern social research and established the field of sociology as separate and distinct from psychology and political philosophy

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dynamic equilibrium

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in sociology, a dynamic equilibrium occurs when complex societies contain many different but interdependent parts working together to maintain stability

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manifest functions

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the intended and obvious consequences of a social structure

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latent functions

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the unintended or less recognizable consequences of a social structure; can be considered beneficial, neutral, or harmful

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conflict theory

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a theory that views society as being in competition for limited resources. According to conflict theory, society is a place where there will be inequality in resources, therefore individuals will compete for social, political, and material resources like money, land, power, and leisure

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Karl Marx

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closely identified with conflict theory, Marx argued that societies progress through class struggle between those who own and control production and those who labor and provide the manpower for production. He believed that capitalism produced internal tensions which would ultimately lead to self-destruction of capitalist society, to be replaced by socialism. Karl Marx, along with Émile Durkheim and Max Weber, is considered a founding father of sociology

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Ludwig Gumplowicz

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expanded upon Marx's ideas about conflict theory by proposing that society is shaped by war and conquest, and that cultural and ethnic conflicts lead to certain groups becoming dominant over other groups

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Max Weber

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Weber agreed with Marx's ideas about conflict theory, but he did not believe that the collapse of capitalism was inevitable; rather, he argued that there could be more than one source of conflict, such as conflict over inequalities in political power and social status. Max Weber, along with Émile Durkheim and Karl Marx, is considered a founding father of sociology

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symbolic interactionism

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a micro-level theory in sociology, which examines the relationship between individuals and society by focusing on communication, the exchange of information through language and symbols. Symbolic interactionism suggests that the mind and self emerge through the social process of communication or use of symbols

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dramaturgical approach

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assumes that people are theatrical performers and that everyday life is a stage; just as actors project a certain on-screen image, people in society choose what kind of image they want to communicate verbally and nonverbally to others. Also called the dramaturgical perspective

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social constructionism

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a sociological theory that argues that people actively shape their reality through social interactions; it is therefore something that is constructed, not inherent. Social constructionism looks to uncover the ways in which individuals and groups participate in the construction of their percieved social reality

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social construct

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a social mechanism or practice that is constructed by society; essentially, everybody in society agrees to treat a certain aspect a certain way regardless of its inherent value

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social dysfunction

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a process that has undesirable consequences, and may actually reduce the stability of society

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social facts

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the elements that serve some function in society, such as the laws, morals, values, religions, customs, rituals, and rules that make up a society

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social institutions

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a complex of roles, norms, and values organized into a relatively stable form that contributes to social order by governing the behavior of people. Social institutions provide predictability and organization for individuals within a society, and mediate social behavior between people

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monogamy

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a form of marriage in which two individuals are married only to each other

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polygamy

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a form of marriage in which an individual may have multiple wives or husbands simultaneously

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polygyny

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a form of marriage in which a man is married to more than one woman

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polyandry

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a form of marriage in which a woman is married to more than one man

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endogamy

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the practice of marrying within a particular group

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exogamy

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a requirement to marry outside a particular group, with it being the norm in almost all cultures to prohibit sexual relationships between certain relatives

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kinship

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familial relationships including blood ties, family ties, and common ancestry

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bilateral descent

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a system of lineage in which the relatives on the mother's side and father's side are considered equally important

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patrilineal descent

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a system of lineage in which the relatives on the father's side are considered most important; an individual belongs to their father's lineage

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matrilineal descent

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a system of lineage in which the relatives on the mother's side are considered most important; an individual belongs to their mother's lineage

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patriarchy

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a social system where males are the primary authority figures, and where fathers hold authority over women and children in a family

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matriarchy

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a social system where females (especially mothers within families) are the primary authority figures

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egalitarian family

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a family system where spouses are treated as equals and may be involved in more negotiation when making decisions

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ecclesia

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a dominant religious organization that includes most members of society, is recognized as the national or official religion, and tolerates no other religions

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church

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in sociology, a type of religious organization that is well-integrated into the political and economic structures of society, and it attempts to provide an all-encompassing worldview for followers

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sect

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a religious organization that is distinct from the parent religion from which it was formed

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cult (aka a new religious movement)

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a religious organization that is far outside society's norms and often involves a very different lifestyle

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religiosity

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the extent that religion influences a person's life

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fundamentalists

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people who observe strict adherence to religious beliefs

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rational-legal authority

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a form of leadership that is organized around rational legal rules (laws)

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traditional authority

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a form of leadership where power is due to custom, tradition, or accepted practice

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charismatic authority

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a form of leadership where devotion is reliant upon an individual with exceptional charisma (persuasiveness, charm, and ability to connect with people)

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capitalism

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an economic system in which resources and production are mainly privately owned and goods/services are produced for a profit

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state capitalism

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a system in which companies are privately run, but work closely with the government in forming laws and regulations

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welfare capitalism

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a system in which most of the economy is private with the exception of extensive social welfare programs to serve certain needs within society

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socialism

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an economic system where resources and production are collectively owned. Socialism includes a system of production and distribution designed to satisfy human needs (goods/services are produced for direct use instead of for profit)

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food desert

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an area, typically in a highly populated lower-income urban environment, where healthy, fresh food is difficult to find

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culture

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a shared way of life, including the beliefs and practices that a social group shares

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symbolic culture

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consists of symbols that carry a particular meaning and are recognized by people of the same culture. These symbols can communicate the values and norms of the culture

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Sapir-Whorf hypothesis

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this hypothesis asserts that people understand their world through language and that language, in turn, shapes how people experience their world

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material culture

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consists of the physical objects that are particular to a culture, which helps to explain the relationship between artifacts and social relations

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values

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a culture's standard for evaluating what is good or bad

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beliefs

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the convictions or principles that people within a culture hold

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norms

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the visible and invisible rules of social conduct within a society. Norms help define what types of behaviors are acceptable and in accordance with a society's values and beliefs. Formal norms are generally written down; laws are examples of formal norms. Informal norms are generally understood but are less precise and often carry no specific punishments

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sociobiology

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the study of how biology and evolution have affected human social behavior. Primarily, it applies Darwin's principle of natural selection to social behavior, suggesting there is a biological basis for many behaviors

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crude birth rate

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the annual number of live births per 1000 people in a population

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crude death rate

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the annual number of deaths per 1000 people in a population

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general fertility rate

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the annual number of live births per 1000 women of childbearing age within a population

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replacement level fertility

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the number of children that a woman or couple must have in order to replace the number of the people in the population who die

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fecundity

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the potential reproductive capacity of a female in a population

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mortality

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the death rate in a population

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life expectancy

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the number of years that an individual at a given age can expect to live at present mortality rates

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urbanization

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the growth of urban areas (as people move from rural to urban areas) as the result of global change. Urbanization is tied to industrialization, and industrialized countries have more people living in urban areas than non-industrialized countries do

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demography

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the study of human population dynamics, including the size, structure, and distribution of a population, and changes in the population over time due to birth, death, and migration

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race

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the biological, anthropological, or genetic origin of an individual, and includes the following U.S. Census categories: White, Black or African American, American Indian or Alaska Native, Asian, and Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander

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ethnicity

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a socially defined concept referring to whether or not people identify with each other based on shared social experience or ancestry

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cultural universals

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patterns or traits that are common to all people; cultural universals tend to pertain to basic human survival and needs, such as securing food and shelter, and also pertain to events that every human experiences, including birth, death, and illness

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social stratification

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the way people are categorized in society; people can be categorized by race, education, wealth, and income (among other things)

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caste system

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a closed social stratification where people can do nothing to change the category that they are born into

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class system

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a social stratification where people are grouped together by similar wealth, income, education, and the like, but the classes are open, meaning that people can strive to reach a higher class (or fall to a lower one)

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meritocracy

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a social stratification where people's social standings are judged based on merit (or personal effort) alone; this is an idealized system, no society solely stratifies based on effort

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socioeconomic status (SES)

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defined by the three P's: power, property, and prestige. It is often defined in terms of power (the ability to get other people to do something), property (sum of possessions and income) and prestige (reputation in society), because these three concepts tend to be related in U.S. society (but not always)

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social mobility

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the ability to move up or down within the social stratification system

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upward mobility

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an increase in social class

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intergenerational mobility

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a change (increase or decrease) in social class between parents and children within a family

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intragenerational mobility

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describes the differences in social class between different members of the same generation

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social reproduction

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the structures and activites in place in a society that serve to transmit and reinforce social inequality from one generation to the next. Cultural capital and social capital are two mechanisms by which social reproduction occurs

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economic capital

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the material resources that promote social mobility (ex. money)

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cultural capital

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the non-financial social assets that promote social mobility (ex. skills, education, knowledge)

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social capital

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the potential for social networks to allow for upward social mobility (ex. connections)

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global stratification

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a comparison of the wealth, economic stability, and power of various countries

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global inequality

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the extent to which income and wealth is distributed in an uneven manner among the world's population

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relative poverty

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an inability to meet the average standard of living within a society

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absolute poverty

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the inability to meet a bare minimum of basic necessities, including clean drinking water, food, safe housing, and reliable access to health care

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social epidemiology

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the study of the distribution of health and disease across a population, with the focus on using social concepts to explain patterns of health and illness in a population

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health care disparities

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the population-specific differences in the presence of disease, health outcomes, and quality of health care across different social groups

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gender bias in medicine

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occurs when women and men recieve different treatment for the same disease or illness

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environmental injustice

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when people in poorer communities are more likely to be subjected to negative environmental impacts to their health and well-being

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residential segregation

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the separation of groups into different neighborhoods; separation most often occurs due to racial differences, ethnic differences, and/or socioeconomic differences. Residential segregation is not based on laws, but rather enduring social patterns, which are attributed to suburbanization, discrimination, and personal preferences

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What are the 3 main sociological theories, what level of analysis do they have, and which theorists supported them?

answer

1. Functionalism, Macro-, Émile Durkheim 2. Conflict Theory, Macro-, Karl Marx, Max Weber, Ludwig Gumplowicz 3. Symbolic Interactionism, Micro-, George Herbert Mead Others: Feminist Theory, Both Rational Choice Theory, Micro- Social Exchange Theory, Micro- Social Constructionism, Micro-

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social exchange theory

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proposes that social behavior is the result of an exchange process. The purpose of this exchange is to maximize benefits and minimize costs.

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rational choice theory

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patterns of behavior in societies reflect the choices made by individuals as they try to maximize their benefits and minimize their costs.

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