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4 common errors in thinking

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1) overgeneralization 2) selective observation 3) resistance to change 4) illogical reasoning

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Overgeneralization

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Occurs when we unjustifiably conclude that what is true for some cases, isn't true for all cases.

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Selective Observation

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Choosing to look at only things that are in line with our preferences or beliefs. *if we acknowledge only the instances that confirm our predispositions, we are victims of our own selective observation*

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Resistance to change

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The reluctant to change our ideas in light of new information. *excessive devotion to tradition can stifle adaption to changing circumstances, and people tend not to question authority*

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Illogical Reasoning

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The premature jumping to conclusions or anything on the basis of invalid assumptions.

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Social Science

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Research methods reduce the likelihood of overgeneralization by using systematic procedures for selecting individuals or groups to study. *to avoid illogical reasoning, social researchers use explicit criteria for identifying causes and for determining whether these criteria meet in a particular instance*

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Purposes/types of research

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...

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Cross-sectional Design

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A study in which data are collected at only one point in time.

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Longitudinal Design

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A study in which data are collected that can be ordered in time: also defined as research in which data are collected at 2 or more points in time.

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Generalizability

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Exists when a conclusion holds true for the population, group, setting, or event that we say it does, given the conditions that we specify; it is the extent to which a study can inform us about persons, places, or events that were not directly studied.

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Census

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Research in which information is obtained through responses from or information about all available members of an entire population.

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Sample

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A subset of a population that is used to study the population as a whole.

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Frame

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A list of all elements or other units containing the elements in a population.

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Forms of probability sampling

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1) simple random sample 2) systematic random sampling 3) cluster sampling 4) stratified random sampling

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Simple random sampling

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Every sample element is selected purely on the basis of chance through a random process.

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Systematic random sampling

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Sample elements are selected from a list or sequential files, with every nth element being selected after the first element is selected randomly.

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Cluster sampling

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Elements are selected in 2 or more stages. 1st stage: being the random selection of naturally occurring clusters last stage: being the random selection of elements within a cluster

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Forms of non probability sampling

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1) Snowball sampling 2) Availability sampling 3) Purposive sampling

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Snowball

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Sample elements are selected as successive informants or interviewees identify them.

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Availability sampling

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Elements are selected on the basis of convenience

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Purposive sampling

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Nonprobability sampling method in which elements are selected for a purpose, usually because of their unique position.

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Criteria for causality

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1) empirical association 2) temporal priority of the dependent variable 3) non spuriousness 4) identifying causal mechanism 5) specifying the context in which the effect occurs

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Experiments

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experimental research provides the most powerful design for testing hypothesis because it allows us to establish the first 3 criteria for causality.

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Causal Validity

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This type of validity exists when a conclusion that A leads to, or results in, B is correct.

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Types of Surveys

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1) Mailed self administered 2) Group administered 3) Telephone 4) In-person interviews 5) Electronic based/ Web based

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Characteristics of good questions in questionnaires

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1) Refine and Test questions, Maintain consistent focus, Order the questions, Make the questionnaire attractive. 2) be clear, avoid confusing phrases, minimize bias, allow for disagreement, don't ask questions they cant answer, allow for uncertainty, make response categories exhaustive and mutually exclusive.

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Field research

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-The study of people in their natural setting or in situations -The study of people by directly interacting with them

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Roles of field research

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High Validity Gives voice Includes range of data collection methods, including field notes, one to one and focus group interviews, as well as some forms of content analysis and historical analysis. 1) participant observation 2) intense interviewing 3) focus groups 4) case studies

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Intensive interviewing

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A qualitative method that involves open-ended, relatively unstructured questioning in which the interviewer seeks in-depth information on the interviewee's feelings, experiences, and perceptions.

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Evaluation research

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Research that describes or identifies the impact of social policies and programs.

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Netnography

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The use of ethnographic methods to study online communities

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Theory

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previously studied and cocluded research that is widely accepted but suseptable to future questioning

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Hypothesis

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A tentative statement about empirical reality involving a relationship between two or more variables

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Deductive Research

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The type of research in which a specific expectation is deduced from a general premise and is then tested

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Inductive Research

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The type of research in which general conclusions are drawn from specific data

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Units of Analysis

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The entities being studied, whose behavior is to be understood.

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Basic rules of ethical research

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1) To protect the research subjects 2) To maintain honesty and openness 3) To achieve valid results 4) To encourage appropriate application

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SocINDEX

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Database with sociology articles, used along with EBSCOhost

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Peer Reviewed

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Looked over by specialists in the field under discussion

social research methods mid term

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