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Organelles, Cells, Tissues, Organs, Systems

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LEVELS OF ORGANISATION

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Nucleus,Cytoplasm,Cell membrane, Cell wall, Chloroplast, Vacuole, Mitochondria

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CELL STRUCTURES

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LARGE ,molecules made up from smaller basic units

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STRUCTURE OF CARBOHYDRATES, PROTEINS & LIPIDS

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From simple sugar

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STARCH & GLYCOGEN

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From amino acids

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PROTEIN

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From fatty acids and glycerol

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LIPIDS

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Enzymes lower the activation energy of a reaction- making it faster (BIOLOGICAL CATALYST)

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ROLE OF ENZYMES IN METABOLIC REACTIONS

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By changes in TEMPERATURE and changes in PH

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HOW FUNCTIONING ENZYMES ARE AFFECTED

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The net overall MOVEMENT of particles of a GAS or SOLUTE from an area of HIGH CONCENTRATION to an area of lower concentration DOWN the concentration gradient

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DIFFUSION

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When WATER moves across a PARTIALLY PERMEABLE MEMBRANE, from an area of HIGH CONCENTRATION to an area of lower concentration DOWN the concentration gradient

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OSMOSIS

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The movement of substances AGAINST a concentration gradient/across a cell membrane, using ENERGY

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ACTIVE TRANSPORT

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Can be by diffusion, osmosis and active transport

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MOVEMENT OF SUBSTANCES INTO AND OUT OF CELLS

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Carbon dioxide + water > glucose + oxygen 6CO2 + 6H2O = C6H12O6 + 6O2

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PHOTOSYNTHESIS EQUATION

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MAGNESIUM ions are needed for CHLRORPHYLL; NITRATE ions are needed for AMINO ACIDS

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MINERAL IONS FOR GROWTH

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Respiration is a reaction that occurs in living things to create energy. It breaks down glucose to release energy

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RESPIRATION PURPOSE

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The process by which FOOD molecules are BROKEN DOWN using OXYGEN to release ENERGY for the cells

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AEROBIC RESPIRATION

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Cellular respiration in the ABSENCE of OXYGEN

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ANAEROBIC RESPIRATION

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Glucose + Oxygen > Carbon dioxide + Water + Energy C6H12O6 + 6O2 → 6CO2 + 6H2O (+ energy)

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AEROBIC RESPIRATION EQUATION

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PLANTS: Glucose > Lactic acid + Energy ANIMALS: Glucose > ethanol + carbon dioxide + energy

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ANAEROBIC RESPIRATION EQUATION

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In the circulatory system oxygen enters the blood and carbon dioxide leaves the blood via gaseous exchange. Gasses move across the walls of alveoli to an area of lower density than they are in: Oxygen moves into the blood as there is a low density of oxygen in the blood; Carbon dioxide moves into the lungs as it is an area of lower density.

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ROLE OF DIFFUSION IN GAS EXCHANHANGE

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In photosynthesis: 6CO2 + 12H2O > C6H12O6 + 6O2 + 6H2O So the plant takes up carbon dioxide and gives out oxygen In respiration: C6H12O6 + 6H2O > 6CO2 + 6H2O So the plant gives out carbon dioxide

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GAS EXCHANGE IN RELATION TO RESPIRATION AND PHOTOSYNTHESIS

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Guard cells regulate the opening and closing of the stomata; allowing carbon dioxide and oxygen to be exchanged between the leaf and the atmosphere. The stomata is open during the day. At night, the stomata is closed

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ROLE OF STOMATA IN GAS EXCHANGE

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Leaves are thin which allows gasses to diffuse quickly through them. In addition the stomata at the bottom of the leaf allow the diffusion of gasses in to the leaf- when a guard cell is shrunk gasses can enter the leaf

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ADAPTATION OF LEAF STRUCTURE

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The intercostal muscles and diaphragm control ventilation in the lungs. When they contract the create more space in the lungs: drawing air in. When the relax the constrict the rings: pushing air out of the lungs

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ROLE OF INTERCOSTAL MUSCLES AND DIAPHRAGM IN VENTILATION

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The alveoli have are thin, this allows gasses to diffuse through them easily. They are small and there are many of them meaning there is a large surface area through which much gas can diffuse at once. It also means there is a lot of surface in contact with the blood stream for gasses to diffuse into. Alveoli have a moist lining for gasses to dissolve into

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ADAPTATION OF ALVEOLI FOR GAS EXCHANGE

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Tar can cause cancerous mutations in the lungs. Smoke removes the cilia- tiny hairs- which keep the lungs clean. Smoking also hardens the arteries, constricting the blood flow and putting strain on the heart, resulting in coronary heart disease.

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BIOLOGICAL CONSEQUENCES OF SMOKING

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Unicellular organisms- including fungi and bacteria- have a large surface area to volume ratio and they are small and so the diffusion distance is short, meaning diffusion happens very quickly

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UNICELLULAR- NO NEED FOR TRANSPORT SYSTEM

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Multicellular organisms have a small surface area to volume ratio and the distance for diffusion would be very large and so very slow. This wouldn't support the organism; so they have developed transport systems, like the ventilation system and the circulatory system which speed up diffusion enough to support themselves

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MULTICELLULAR SYSTEM- NEED FOR TRANSPORT SYSTEM

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Transport nitrates, phosphates, water and other mineral salts from the roots to other parts of the plants, like the leafs, flowers and buds. Xylem consists of columns of hollow, dead cells. Substances are carried up the tube dissolved in water

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ROLE OF XYLEM

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Roots branch to increase the surface area and to increase the chances of finding a water source. Root hairs are epidermal cells on the surface of the root: they also increase the surface area for absorption. They absorb minerals by active transport and water by osmosis. These substances then move to the xylem

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HOW WATER IS ABSORBED BY ROOT HAIR CELLS

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The EVAPORATION if water from the surface of a plant

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TRANSPIRATION

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Red blood cells / White blood cells / Platelets / Plasma

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COMPOSITION OF BLOOD

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Contains WATER, UREA and SALTS

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URINE

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Water is reabsorbed into the blood from the COLLECTING DUCT

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RE-ABSORPTION OF WATER

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Occurs at the PROXIMAL convoulted tubule

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SELECTIVE RE-ABSORPTION OF GLUCOSE

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Blood arrives in Bowman's casual under the high pressure of an artery, it travels it to the glomerulus where the pressure is further increased (as the tubes are smaller). Components of the blood are forced out of the blood vessel into the glomerulus due to the high pressure, creating glomerulas filtrate (water, slats ect.)

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ULTRAFILTRATION IN THE BOWMANS CAPSULE

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Bowman's capsule, Glomerelus, Tubules, Loop od henley, Collecting duct

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STRUCTURE OF NEPHRON

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Kidneys, ureters, bladder, urethra

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STRUCTURE OF URINARY SYSTEM

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Sensitivity is one of the life processes (mrs gren); it is responding to the environment around. Living things must have receptors to be able to detect the change and effectors to be able to carry out a response

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ORGANISM RESPONSE

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The maintenance of a constant internal environment and that body water content and body temperature are both examples of homeostasis

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HOMEOSTASIS

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Requires a STIMULUS, a RECEPTOR and an EFFECTOR

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COORDINATED RESPONSE

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Respond to STIMULI

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PLANTS

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Geo-tropism is when a plant grows in response to gravity. Roots always carry out posotive geo-tropism, towards gravity/ down.Shoots always carry out negative geo-tropism, away from gravity/ up.

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DESCRIPTION OF GEOTROPIC RESPONSE

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Stems experience positive photo-tropism, this means they always grow towards light. In a place where light shines there will be fewer auxins (growth hormones) this encourages the stem to bend towards the source of light.

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DESCRIPTION OF POSITIVE PHOTOTROPISM

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consists of the BRAIN and SPINAL CHORD and is LINKED to SENSE ORGANS by NERVES

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CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM

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The SIMULATION of RECEPTORS in SENSE ORGANS sends ELECTRICAL IMPULSES along NERVES into and out of the CNS, resulting in RAPID RESPONSES

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HUMAN RESPONSE

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source: PITUITARY GLAND roles: Controls WATER CONTENT of BLOOD effects: The KIDNEYS

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ADH

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source: ADRENAL GLANDS roles: PREPARES body for STRESSFUL or PHYSICALLY ACTIVE situations effects: 'FIGHT OR FLIGHT'

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ADRENALINE

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source: PANCREAS roles: lower and raise BLOOD GLUCOSE LEVELS

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INSULIN

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source: TESTES roles: controls development of male secondary SEXUAL CHARACTERISTICS effects: SPERM PRODUCTION

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TESTOSTERONE

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source: OVARIES roles: REGULATES MENSTRUAL CYCLE

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PROGESTERONE

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source: OVARIES roles: controls development of female secondary SEXUAL CHARACTERISTICS

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OESTROGEN

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Reproduction which involves the JOINING of TWO special HAPLOID SEX CELLS/ GAMETES to produce DIPLOID OFFSPRING which are genetically different from their parents

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SEXUAL REPRODUCTION

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Reproduction which involves only ONE PARENT and produces IDENTICAL OFFSPRING to the parents

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ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION

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Involves the FUSION of a male and female GAMETE to produce a ZYGOTE that undergoes CELL DIVISION and develops into an EMBRYO

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FERTILISATION

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is lead to by the growth of the POLLEN TUBE followed by FERTILISATION

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SEED AND FRUIT FORMATION

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Can be by NATURAL METHODS and by ARTIFICIAL METHODS

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ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN PLANTS

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Develops BREASTS, BODY HAIR and the MENSTRUAL CYCLE begins

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ROLE OF OESTROGEN IN SECONDARY SEXUAL CHARACTERISTIC DEVELOPMENT

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The GROWTH of the PENIS, TESTES, FACIAL & BODY HAIR, MUSCLE DEVELOPMENT AND VOICE BREAKING

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ROLE OF TESTOSTERONE IN SECONDARY SEXUAL CHARACTERISTIC DEVELOPMENT

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Contains CHROMOSOMES on which GENES are located

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NUCLEUS

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Is a section of a molecule of DNA and a gene CODES FOR A SPECIFIC PROTEIN

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GENE

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ADENINE & THYMINE, CYTOSINE & GUANINE

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DNA BASES

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Are GENES existing in ALTERNATIVE FORMS, which gives rise to DIFFERENCES IN INHERITED CHARACTERISTICS

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ALLELES

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The sex of a person is controlled by ONE PAIR of CHROMOSOMES

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SEX DETERMINATION

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XX

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FEMALE CHROMOSOMES

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XY

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MALE CHROMOSOMES

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Produces TWO CELLS which contain IDENTICAL sets of CHROMOSOMES

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DIPLOID CELL DIVISION BY MITOSIS

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Occurs during GROWTH, REPAIR, CLONING and ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION

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MITOSIS

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Produces FOUR CELLS, EACH WITH HALF the number of CHROMOSOMES. This results in the formation of GENETICALLY DIFFERENT HAPLOID GAMETES

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CELL DIVISION BY MEIOSIS

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Produces GENETIC VARIATION of offspring

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RANDOM FERTILISATION

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HAPLOID= 23 DIPLOID=46

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HUMAN CELLS (CHROMOSOME NUMBER)

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Can be GENETIC, ENVIRONMENTAL, or a COMBINATION of both

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VARIATION IN A SPECIES

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Is a RARE, RANDOM change in GENETIC MATERIAL that can be INHERITED

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MUTATION

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Organisms produce more offspring than the environment can support. Only those BEST ADAPTED to their environment will SURVIVE to breed and PASS ON THEIR CHARACTERISTICS

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PROCESS OF EVOLUTION BY MEANS OF NATURAL SELECTION

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MANY are HARMFUL, but SOME are NEUTRAL and FEW are BENEFICIAL

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MUTATION EFFECTS

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Can INCREASE in BACTERIAL POPULATIONS and an increase can lead to INFECTIONS being DIFFICULT TO CONTROL

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RESISTANCE TO ANTIBIOTICS

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A group of individuals of the SAME SPECIES living in the SAME HABITAT and BREEDING TOGETHER

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POPULATION

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ALL OF THE POPULATIONS of LIVING ORGANISMS living in an ecosystem at a PARTICULAR TIME

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COMMUNITY

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The place where an animal or plant lives, including both the LIVING AND NON-LIVING aspects of the area

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HABITAT

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ALL of the ANIMALS and PLANTS in an area, along with things that affect them, such as the SOIL and WEATHER. Includes all INTERACTIONS between all DIFFERENT LIVING ORGANISMS and the NON-LIVING COMPONENTS of their home

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ECOSYSTEM

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A sample square is taken at random. The number of a population in that square is taken. This is repeated in different areas and compared to show where populations are dense and not.

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QUADRATS TO ESTIMATE POPULATION SIZE

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A square of around a meter takes a sample from a area and the populations are counted. This can be repeated many times before being multiplied out as if it were the complete area of the land. Two different samples can be put in two separate areas and the sampling done for both will estimate population for both areas.

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QUADRATS TO ESTIMATE POPULATION SIZE IN 2 DIFFERENT AREAS

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PRODUCER, PRIMARY CONSUMER, SECONDARY CONSUMER, TERTIARY CONSUMER, DECOMPOSER

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TROPHIC LEVELS

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Respiration is carried out by animals and plants to release energy from glucose, the equation is: C6H12O6 + 6O2 → 6CO2 + 6H2O . This means carbon is produced. Photosynthesis is what plants do to create glucose the equation is: 6 CO2 + 12 H2O → C6H12O6 + 6 O2 + 6 H2O. This means carbon is used. Decomposition is happens when an animal dies, it is then eaten by a decomposer which releases the carbon in it back into the atmosphere. Combustion is burning, if something with carbon is burnt it will release it into the atmosphere, e.g. a tree, fossil fuel.

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STAGES IN CARBON CYCLE

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WATER VAPOUR, CARBON DIOXIDE, NITROUS OXIDE, METHANE, CFCs

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GREENHOUSE GASES

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Result in an ENHANCED GREENHOUSE EFFECT and this may lead to GLOBAL WARMING and it's consequences

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INCREASE IN GREENHOUSE GASES

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Can result from leached MINERALS FROM FERTILISER

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EUTROPHICATION

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Can be used to develop ANIMALS and plants with DESIRED CHARACTERISTICS

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SELECTIVE BREEDING

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Can be manufactured from genetically modified bacteria that are grown in a fermenter

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HUMAN INSULIN

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When a virus or plasmid is inside a host cell it may pick up DNA, it may then carry this into another host cell. The foreign DNA is known as recombinant DNA

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PLASMIDS AND VIRUSES ACTING AS VECTORS

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Plant clippings are taken and placed in a sterile growth medium. Roots will develop from the clipping (and shoots) making a whole new plant. The plant will then be transferred into compost and grown as a normal plant. The plant is a clone of the one is was taken from because it has the same DNA. This means that there will be no variation, so you can have the same plant every time.

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MICROPROPAGATION

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In micropropagation, plant clippings are taken and put in a growth medium. They will develop into a new plant with the same DNA. This means that every plant made from the clippings of one plant will be clones with exactly the same characteristics. If many clippings are taken then you will have many clones

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HOW MICROPROPAGATION IS USED TO PRODUCE COMMERCIAL QUANTITIES OF CLONE PLANTS

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A egg cell with the nucleus removed has the DNA of another cell put in (this will be have a complete set of chromosomes (diploid number of)). The embryo that forms will then have DNA from only one parent: the one the DNA was taken from. This means it will be a clone! for example dolly the sheep.

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STAGES IN PRODUCING CLONED MAMMALS

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Contains all GENETIC INFORMATION and CONTROLS actions of the cell

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NUCLEUS STRUCTURE

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Where the reaction in cells takes place

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CYTOPLASM

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CONTROLS movement of CHEMICALS in and out of the cell

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CELL MEMBRANE

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STRENGTHENS the cell (Made from CELLULOSE)

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CELL WALL

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Used in PHOTOSYNTHESIS (Contain CHLOROPHYLL)

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CHLOROPLAST

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Keeps the cell TURGID

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VACUOLE

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A nucleus is in the centre of the cell; it is surrounded by cytoplasm; around the outside edge is the cell membrane

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ANIMAL CELL STRUCTURE

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A vacuole in the centre is surrounded by cytoplasm; with in this is the nucleus and chloroplasts; surrounding this is the cell membrane; and around that is the cell wall

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PLANT CELL STRUCTURE

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CARBON, HYDROGEN, OXYGEN

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CARBOHYDRATE AND LIPID COMPOSITION

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CARBON, HYDROGEN, OXYGEN, SULFUR, PHOSPHORUS, NITROGEN

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PROTEIN COMPOSITION

question

Heat object with Benedict's Reagent. if it turns from blue to orange then glucose is present.

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TEST FOR GLUCOSE

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Apply iodine to the object you are testing, if it turns from red to blue/black then there is starch.

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TEST FOR STARCH

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Put starch into a test tube; either heat or cool it. Add amylase With this mixture on white tiles, add iodine Time how long it takes for the iodine to stop being blue black Repeat at different temperatures and compare When the iodine stops being blue/black there is no starch present, so it must have been digested by the enzymes

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ENZYME ACTIVITY EFFECTED BY TEMPERATURE (TEST)

question

with a larger surface area- molecules have more surfaces through which to diffuse, this increases the rate of moment

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HOW SURFACE AREA AFFECTS THE RATE OF MOVEMENT OF SUBSTANCES INTO AND OUT OF CELLS

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Increased temperature means increased kinetic energy- this will mean molecules collide with the cell wall more often making movement through it more likely

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HOW TEMPERATURE AFFECTS THE RATE OF MOVEMENT OF SUBSTANCES INTO AND OUT OF CELLS

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This is the difference between the concentration inside and outside of the cell. The bigger the difference is the more opportunity molecules have of diffusing.

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HOW CONCENTRATION GRADIENT AFFECTS THE RATE OF MOVEMENT OF SUBSTANCES INTO AND OUT OF CELLS

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Put a coloured substance (like food colouring) into a clear one (like water) Time how long it takes for all the liquid to be the same colour. Change the temperature of the liquid and make observations. The higher the heat, the more kinetic energy meaning the colour moves through the liquid faster

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EXPERIMENT TO INVESTIGATE DIFFUSION

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Cut two roughly equal pieces of potato and weigh them. Put one in distilled water and one in salt water. After a given amount of time weigh them. The one in salt water will have lost mass as the water in the potato moves to the less highly concentrated salt water. Where as in the pure water the potato will have gained mass as it was less dens with water.

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EXPERIMENT TO INVESTIGATE OSMOSIS

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Photosynthesis is the process in which energy- from the sunlight- is used to create glucose. Light energy is absorbed by chlorophyll in plants leaves. It is then used to convert carbon dioxide (from the air) and water (from the ground) into glucose; which is used for respiration. Oxygen is a by-product of this process. This is using light energy, from the sun, to create chemical energy (glucose); which conserves the energy from the sun. This energy is then passed through the food chain, which is why plants are called the producer (producing the chemical energy in the chain from the sun light.)

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PHOTOSYNTHESIS & IMPORTANCE OF ENERGY CONSERVATION

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If there is insufficient carbon dioxide a plant will not be able to photosynthesis to its full potential. Because there is less carbon dioxide- less reactant- there has to be less product being made.

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HOW CARBON DIOXIDE CONCENTRATION AFFECTS RATE OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS

question

If the light is at a low intensity the rate of photosynthesis is lowered because the energy that the light provides is less, so the reaction is slowed down. A higher light intensity will enable photosynthesis to happen faster.

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HOW LIGHT INTENSITY AFFECTS RATE OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS

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In colder temperatures the rate of photosynthesis will decrease. If the temperature is too high however, the plant will not be able to photosynthesise

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HOW TEMPERATURE AFFECTS RATE OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS

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In terms of the basic features leaves have a large surface area; this allows them to absorb more sunlight. They are also thin, meaning that carbon dioxide has a shorter way to travel. In addition the stomata allow the entrance of carbon dioxide.

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LEAF ADAPTATIONS FOR PHOTOSYNTHESIS

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he most common experiment for this is using pond weed, which is placed under water then factors are varied: A lamp is moved further from the plant; Baking powder is added to the water (increasing CO2); A white leaved plant is tested against a green leaved plant (green has more chlorophyll). The gas it gives off- being the products of photosynthesis- is counted as bubbles or measured by downwards displacement. This shows the speed of photosynthesis under different conditions. Iodine can be used to test the production of starch.

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EXPERIMENT TO INVESTIGATE PHOTSYNTHESIS

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IMMEDIATE ENERGY bananas, brown rice, wholemeal foods and potatoes.

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CARBOHYDRATE FUNCTION

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GROWTH & REPAIR sea food, eggs, pork and soy

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PROTEIN FUNCTION

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LONG TERM ENERGY STORE, INSULATION & PROTECTION fish, eggs, milk and beef.

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LIPID FUNCTION

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MAINTAINING NORMAL REPRODUCTION, GOOD VISION, FORMATION AND MAINTENANCE OF HEALTHY SKIN, TEETH AND SOFT TISSUES & IMMUNE FUNCTION Milk, cheese, eggs, fatty fish, yellow-orange vegetables and fruits such as carrots, pumpkin, mango, apricots, and other vegetables such as spinach, broccoli.

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VITAMIN A FUNCTION

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AIDING ABSORPTION OF IRON AND COPPER, HEALTHY BONES & HELPS TO FIGHT INFECTION Blackcurrants, orange, grapefruit, guava, kiwi fruit, raspberries, sweet peppers (Capsicum), broccoli, sprouts

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VITAMIN C FUNCTION

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IMMUNE FUNCTION, HEALTHY SKIN & MUSCLE STRENGTH Sunlight on skin allows the body to produce Vitamin D. Few foods contain significant amounts however main dietary sources are fortified margarine, salmon, herring, mackerel, and eggs.

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VITAMIN D FUNCTION

question

DEVELOPMENT AND MAINTENANCE OF BONES AND TEETH, GOOD FUNCTIONING MUSCLES AND NERVES & HEART FUNCTION Milk, cheese, yoghurt, bony fish, legumes, fortified soy beverages and fortified breakfast cereals.

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CALCIUM FUNCTION

question

HAEMOGLOBIN IN RED BLOOD CELLS, COMPONENT OF MYGLOBIN Red meats - beef, lamb, veal, pork, fish, chicken and wholegrain cereals

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IRON FUNCTION

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CHEMICAL REACTIONS IN CELLS NEED WATER & FOR RESPIRATION

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WATER FUNCTION

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KEEPS BOWELS FUNCTIONING WELL Cereals, bread, rice, beans and nuts.

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DIETARY FIBRE FUNCTION

question

Mechanical digestion happens here- your jaw action. A bolus is created; this is a ball of food covered in saliva. This is help full as the food is lubricated to enable swallowing and enzymes in the saliva can begin to break down the food. (amylase)

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THE MOUTH (HUMAN ALIMENTARY CANAL)

question

this tube connects you mouth and stomach. It is next to the trachea which is covered by the epiglottis when you swallow so the food only enters the oesophagus. Peristalsis- or muscular contractions- moves the food downward.

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THE OESOPHAGUS (HUMAN ALIMENTARY CANAL)

question

Churning mechanically digests whilst enzymes do so chemically. Chyme is the name for liquid food existing in the stomach.

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THE STOMACH (HUMAN ALIMENTARY CANAL)

question

This absorbs digested molecules into the blood stream. Villi cover the inside giving it a large surface area which many molecules can diffuse through into the blood.

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THE SMALL INTESTINE (HUMAN ALIMENTARY CANAL)

question

This absorbs water from undigested food, producing faeces.

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THE LARGE INTESTINE (HUMAN ALIMENTARY CANAL)

question

This produces the enzymes lipase, amylase and protease.

answer

THE PANCREAS (HUMAN ALIMENTARY CANAL)

question

MOUTH> OESOPHAGUS>STOMACH>SMALL INTESTINE>LARGE INTESTINE>PANCREAS

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HUMAN ALIMENTARY CANAL STRUCTURE

question

The process in which large insoluble molecules of food are broken down into smaller ones.

answer

DIGESTION

question

the process by which soluble molecules produced by digestion are taken from the gut (occurs mostly in the small intestine.) The soluble products of digestion are then transported to the various tissues by the circulatory system.

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ABSORPTION

question

the cells of the tissues absorb the molecules for use.

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ASSIMILATION

question

removal of waste- undigested- products as faeces.

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EGESTION

question

removal of waste products that have been in the body.

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EXCRETION

question

Food is moved through the gut by peristalsis. Muscles move food because mechanical action is needed to get food through the system.

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HOW AND WHY FOOD IS MOVED THROUGH THE GUT

question

Enzymes break down food into useful things that our boddies need. Different enzymes break down different components of our food.

answer

ROLE OF ENZYMES

question

AMYLASE & MALTASE

answer

CONVERSION OF STARCH TO GLUCOSE

question

PROTEASE

answer

CONVERSION OF PROTEINS TO AMINO ACIDS

question

LIPASE

answer

CONVERSION OF LIPIDS TO FATTY ACIDS AND GLYCEROL

question

PRODUCED IN THE LIVER & STORED IN THE GALL BLADDER

answer

BILE

question

Enzymes in the small intestine work best in alkaline conditions but the food is acidic after being in the stomach. Bile is alkaline and so when it is released into the small intestine it enables the enzymes to work.

answer

NEUTRALISING STOMACH ACIDS

question

Bile also emulsifies fat; this gives it a larger surface area, which means that it is easier for lipase to work.

answer

EMULSIFYING LIPIDS

question

in the small intestine. The are like lumps on this inside of the small intestine. They are the surface through which food diffuses into the blood stream. They have very thin walls, only one cell thick, this enables molecules to pass through easily. They also increase the surface area of the small intestine wall On the outside of villi there are capillaries which pick up the diffused food into the blood stream.

answer

VILLI

question

When the heart and lungs cannot work fast enough to provide to oxygen needed for aerobic respiration: for example when exercising The energy released is less in anaerobic respiration because the glucose cannot be fully broken down.

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WHEN ANAEROBIC RESPIRATION IS USED

question

During exercise cells respire more quickly (to provide more energy for movement) this means oxygen has to be delivered more quickly and carbon dioxide taken away more quickly. As a result of this the lung muscles contract and relax more rapidly and the heart beats faster. Measure a persons breaths per 10 seconds when stationary. Then after one minute after running at 5mph then at two minutes and so on. You will find a linear relationship as described above between the two.

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EXPERIMENT TO INVESTIGATE THE EFFECT OF EXERCISE ON BREATHING IN HUMANS

question

In the circulatory system oxygen enters the blood and carbon dioxide leaves the blood via gaseous exchange. Gasses move across the walls of alveoli to an area of lower density than they are in: Oxygen moves into the blood as there is a low density of oxygen in the blood; Carbon dioxide moves into the lungs as it is an area of lower density

answer

ROLE OF DIFFUSION IN GAS EXCHANGE

question

In photosynthesis: 6CO2 + 12H2O > C6H12O6 + 6O2 + 6H2O So the plant takes up carbon dioxide and gives out oxygen In respiration: C6H12O6 + 6H2O > 6CO2 + 6H2O So the plant gives out carbon dioxide

answer

GAS EXCHANGE IN RELATION TO RESPIRATION & PHOTOSYNTHESIS

question

The intercostal muscles contract The ribs move up and out The diaphragm contracts and moves down The trachea carries air towards the lungs; it splits into two bronchi- one leading to the left lung, and one o the right- which then split into even smaller tubes, called bronchiles; these end in alveoli where gas exchange takes place. The pleural membranes prevent friction

answer

BREATHING IN

question

The intercostal muscles relax The ribs drop down The diaphragm also relaxes and moves upward These things reduce the space inside the lungs, pushing the air out.

answer

BREATHING OUT

question

Increased humidity decreases transpiration. This is because high water content outside the leaf will mean there is little difference in concentration, so the water will not be able to move- as it naturally does- from an area of low concentration to an area of high concentration.

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EFFECT OF HUMIDITY ON RATE OF TRANSPIRATION

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Increased wind speed will increase transpiration. Because if the wind blows away the water vapour being produced their will be a greater difference in water concentration, meaning water will be able to continue leaving the leaf.

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EFFECT OF WIND SPEED ON RATE OF TRANSPIRATION

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Increased temperature increases transpiration, as increased heat makes evaporating easier.

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EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE ON RATE OF TRANSPIRATION

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Increased light intensity increases transpiration, as more heat is absorbed by the leaf meaning more water will be evaporated, also there is more photosynthesis meaning more water is being transported through the leaf (so more will need to leave the leaf.)

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EFFECT OF LIGHT INTENSITY ON RATE OF TRANSPIRATION

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Support a plant in a tray filled with a given amount of water. Place in different conditions and record the time taken for all the water in the way to be taken up by the plant.

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EXPERIMENT TO INVESTIGATE THE ROLE OF ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS IN DETERMINING THE RATE OF TRANSPIRATION

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Is a solvent and a liquid; so plasma carries these different things around the body disolved in water: Carbon- Hydrogen carbonate Digested food- soluble sugars and amino acids Urea Hormones. Water also carries heat, which is important in the regulation of body temperature.

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ROLE OF PLASMA IN TRANSPORT OF WATER

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They have haemoglobin- which is made from iron- that can bond to oxygen. They have no nucleus to make more room for haemoglobin.There are no mitochondria as the cells respire anaerobically. The biconcave shape enables them to pass through narrow capillaries and increase the surface area and decrease the distance for diffusion meaning that diffusion of oxygen happens quickly.

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ADAPTATIONS OF RED BLOOD CELLS

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They can detect the presence of pathogens because of chemicals they give off. The cell then engulfs the pathogen. If then destroys the cell with digestive enzymes.

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PHAGOCYTES (SPECIALISED WHITE BLOOD CELL)

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They release anti-bodies that are specific to the pathogen. When a lymphocyte meets its specific pathogen it divides: one cells it creates being a memory cell; the other being the cell which will create anti-bodies. One type of anti-body will attach to the pathogen to attract phagocytes. The other type will disable the cell. A third type will group the pathogens together so that phagocytes can engulf them all. If the memory cells every meet the pathogen again they will create the anti-bodies very quickly.

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LYMPHOCYTES (SPECIALISED WHITE BLOOD CELL)

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During exercise muscles require more energy which is created by respiration, that requires more oxygen to be brought to cells and more carbon dioxide to be taken away, this means the heart needs to increase its speed so that more blood is sent to muscles.

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HOW HEART RANGE CHANGES DURING EXERCISE

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Adrenaline is produced in the adrenal glands in top of the kidneys- stimulates adrenegic receptors in the heart which increase the rate that your heart cells work at.

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HEART RANGE CHANGES UNDER THE INFLUENCE OF ADRENALINE

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he right atrium fills with blood (from the vena cava) and the valve is closed; This area is squeezed forcing the blood through an atrio-ventricular valve into the right ventricle; This area contracts forcing the blood through the pulmonary artery where it is oxygenated at the lungs; the pulmonary vein fills the left atrium with blood; This contracts forcing the blood into the left ventricle; when the left ventricle contracts the blood is forced out through the aorta.

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FUNCTION OF THE HEART

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Take blood away from the heart Blood in them is under high pressure They are delivering blood to an organ Thick, muscle wall; small lumen (to give high blood pressure)

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ARTERIES

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Take blood to the heart Blood is under low pressure Their blood is returning from an organ Relatively thin wall; large lumen (to give ow blood pressure) Valves stop blood flowing back in the wrong direction

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VEINS

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Exchange is taken place Very thin cell walls (one cell thick) so that substances can diffuse easily

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CAPPILARIES

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TO the heart

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VEIN

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AWAY from the heart

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ARTERY

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PULMONARY

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LUNG

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HEPATIC

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LIVER

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RENAL

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KIDNEY

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GASTRIC

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STOMACH

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BETWEEN GUT AND LIVER

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HEPATIC PORTAL VEIN

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RESPIRATION-carbon dioxide is a waste product and is excreted from the leaf through the stomata. PHOTOSYNTHESIS-the glucose is used for energy and oxygen is a waste product, it leaves the leaf through the stomata.

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ORIGIN OF CARBON DIOXIDE & OXYGEN AS A WASTE PRODUCT OF OXYGEN AND LOSS THROUGH THE STOMATA OF A LEAF

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LUNGS, KIDNEYS and SKIN

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ORGANS OF EXCRETION

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amino acids contain nitrogen- which is toxic to the body- the liver converts it into urea. The kidneys filter urea from the blood stream and combine it with water to create urine which then moves into the bladder.

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HOW KIDNEYS CARY OUT EXCRETION

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The kidneys react to ADH hormone released by the pituitary gland. If there is too little water ADH will be released and the kidneys won't absorb any water, but if there is too much water then less ADH is released and the kidneys absorb water from the blood stream.

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HOW KIDNEYS CARRY OUT OSMOREGULATION

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Excess or lack of water is detected by the hypothalamus in the brain, it causes the pituitary gland to produce Anti-diuretic hormone, or ADH. This hormone then travels through the blood stream to the kidneys, when it reaches them the kidneys lower the amount of water that is excreted by the body, and increase the amount of water that is reabsorbed into the blood stream. The urine is then more concentrated with a lower volume. If there is too much water the levels of ADH are lowered and the opposite effects happen, resulting with a more dilute urine and less water in the blood.

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ROLE OF ADH IN REGULATING WATER CONTENT OF BLOOD

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The nervous system and hormones both coordinate responses with in the body. The nervous does this by electrical impulses so it is very fast.

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RESPONSES CONTROLLED BY NERVOUS COMMUNICATION

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Hormones do this with chemicals which travel, a little slower, at the speed of the blood stream they are travelling in.

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RESPONSES CONTROLLED BY HORMONAL COMMUNICATION

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A reflex is an automatic reaction, for example removing your hand from extreme heat. A reflex arch is the path of the reaction. It starts at a sense organ e.g a finger; receptors pick up stimuli e.g heat; Sensory neurones carry an electrical impulse to the CNS; A relay neuron carries the impulse through the CNS where a response is decided; The new impulse is sent through a motor neurone; This makes an effector carry out a response e.g muscle contracts to bring finger away from heat

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REFLEX ARC (WITHDRAWAL OF FINGER)

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The eye is a receptor of light, it has light receptor cells in its retina. These cells turn stimuli into electrical impulses.

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STRUCTURE & FUNCTION OF AN EYE AS A RECEPTOR

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stamens: INSIDE petals stigma: STICKY, INSIDE petals petals: LARGE & BRIGHT nectaries: PRESENT pollen grains: LARGE & STICKY

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INSECT POLLINATED FLOWER

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stamens: OUTSIDE petals stigma:FEATHERY & STICKY, OUTSIDE petals petals: SMALL & USUALLY GREEN nectaries: ABSENT pollen grains: SMALL, SMOOTH & LIGHT

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WIND POLLINATED FLOWER

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Testis- produce sperm cells, they are stored in the epididymus Vas deference- carries sperm to the penis The prostate- adds fluid to the sperm, creating semen (as does the seminal vesicles) The urethra- carries sperm to the end of, and out of the penis.

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MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

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Ovaries- produce eggs Oviducts- carry the eggs to the uterus, is the site of fertilisation Uterus- develops the fertilised egg on the placenta Cervix- entrance to uterus

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FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

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produced in the ovaries; thickens the womb lining; prompts the release of LH.

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OESTROGEN IN THE MENSTRUAL CYCLE

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produced in the corpus lutiem; maintains the lining of the womb

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PROGESTERONE IN THE MENSTRUAL CYCLE

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Monohybrid inheritance is the inheritance of one gene.

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MONOHYBRID INHERITANCE

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A pedigree diagram shows a specific gene in a family. It will have a key but most often: a circle represents a female and a square represents a male; often coloured in represents one allele and blank another (but sometimes they are different colours.)

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INTERPRETATION OF FAMILY PEDIGREES

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To work out the probability of a child inheriting a genotype, you see how many times it comes up and divide it by 4 then times by 100 for a percent

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PREDICTING GENOTYPE PROBABILITIES

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Genetic diagrams work the same as mono-hybrid inheritance diagrams: showing the mothers and fathers and then the different out comes. The only difference is, they will always be the same because one parent is always male and one parent is always female (XY, XX)

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HOW TO DETERMINE SEX

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shows the transfer of energy up the food chain beginning with the producers then the primary consumers and so forth.

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FOOD CHAIN

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links several animals within a habitat showing what consumes what and is consumed by what.

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FOOD WEB

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progresses through the trophic levels of a food chain representing the number of each species by the area of the pyramid block

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PYRAMID OF NUMBERS

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represents the mass of each consumer (and producer) by the area of a pyramid block.

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PYRAMID OF BIOMASS

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shows the transfer of energy through the food chain.

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PYRAMID OF ENERGY

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As one thing consumes another the energy and other things inside it- for example fat and vitamins- get transferred to the consumer. If you eat a fatty piece of beef you get the fat from the cow.

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TRANSFER OF SUBSTANCES AND ENERGY ALONG THE FOOD CHAIN

question

The reason why not all of the energy will make it to the next tropic level is that some of it will be used up on the level it is at. The energy is used for the life processes of the animal that it is in.

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WHY ONLY 10% OF ENERGY IS PASSED FROM ONE TROPHIC LEVEL TO THE NEXT

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Sulfur dioxide and carbon monoxide are created by many processes we use in factories and homes. When in the atmosphere they can dissolve in rain water to create rain the is acidic. Acid rain corrodes metals and rocks like limestone which can damage buildings and statues. Acid rain can also change the PH in soil or rivers, this can mean that some species can not survive in that area.

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BIOLOGICAL CONSEQUENCES OF SULFUR DIOXIDE & CARBON MONOXIDE POLLUTED AIR

question

Many of the processes that we carry out in homes and factories produce or release gasses with the greenhouse effect. Many things release greenhouse gasses when they are burned; reactions can create greenhouse gasses; some plants and animals that we keep a lot of naturally release greenhouse gasses. Processes that produce greenhouse gasses include burning fossil fuels and keeping large amounts of live stock.

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HOW HUMAN ACTIVITIES CONTRIBUTE TO GREENHOUSE GASES

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loss of nutrient from soil. Normally nutrient is rained into the soil; absorbed by plants; shed in their leaves/when they die; digested by decomposers so its back in the soil. If you take away the vegetation you remove nutrients from the cycle. In addition to this the soil is not protected by plants and so when it rains there will be a higher rate of surface run off, this will take the nutrients from the soil with it. Soil erosion is also caused by the fact that without plants to protect the soil there is more surface run off, because soil is taken with it.

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EFFECTS OF DEFORESTATION (LEECHING)

question

Plants absorb water from the soil and lose water from their leaves (through transpiration) in to the atmosphere which goes on to make clouds. If there are less plants then less water is evaporated into the atmosphere, this means there are less clouds; less clouds means less rain, which can mean drought.

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EFFECTS OF DEFORESTATION (DISTURBANCE OF WATER CYCLE)

question

Plants also convert carbon dioxide into oxygen when they photosynthesise. Forests carbon sinks, they use more carbon than they release: this means they help to make sure there aren't too high levels of CO2 in the atmosphere. When forests are cut down this process is lost and additionally the trees are usually burnt which releases CO2 into the atmosphere.

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EFFECTS OF DEFORESTATION (BALANCE OF CARBON DIOXIDE AND OXYGEN)

question

In glasshouses and polythene tunnels conditions can be controlled. This control means that all the limiting factors for plant growth can be set to the optimum conditions; this will result in more growth, so higher yield.

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HOW GLASS HOUSES AND POLYTHENE TUNNELS INCREASE YIELD OF CERTAIN CROPS

question

Glass houses and polythene tunnels increase the heat in the environment that crops are growing in. Reactions happen faster when there is more heat, for example photosynthesis. Given photosynthesis produces energy that the plant needs to grow, if there is more heat there is more growth and so higher yield.

answer

EFFECTS ON CROP YIELD OF INCREASED TEMPERATURE

question

Carbon dioxide is a reactant in photosynthesis. If there is a more than enough carbon dioxide, then every plant will be able to photosynthesise as best as it can. The more photosynthesis the more glucose, the more glucose the more energy, the more energy the more growth. Hence crop yield is increased.

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EFFECTS ON CROP YIELD OF INCREASED CARBON DIOXIDE

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contain minerals that plants require to grow; most of them are called NPK fertilisers, this means they contain nitrates, phosphates and potassium.

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FERTILISER

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are needed to make proteins- proteins are what plant cells are made of. If there is a lot of nitrate in the soil then plants have the ability to grow as much as they can.

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NITRATES (FERTILISER)

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are involved in respiration and growth- both things are needed to sustain a plant.

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PHOSPHATES (FERTILISER)

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must be present for enzymes to work- with out it the plant wouldn't be able to carry out reactions and so would die or have very limited growth.

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POTASSIUM (FERTILISER)

question

Pests can eat crops or damage them so they can't be sold.

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REASONS FOR PEST CONTROL

question

Pesticides are used to kill pests that reduce crop yield. The assure that crops won't be damaged. Fast and accurate to apply. Instant results. They can harm other wildlife

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ADVANTAGES IF PESTICIDES

question

Killing the pest may affect biodiversity. Pesticides can leech into the soil and possibly pollute rivers or surrounding habitats. Pests can become immune.

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DISADVANTAGES OF PESTICIDES

question

is introducing a predator into the environment with the crops to kill the pests. Cheep. Self regulating. The predator may enter the wild and effect the biodiversity.

answer

BIOLOGICAL CONTROL

question

Yeast converts sugar to ethanol and CO2 when it respires anaerobically.ethanol is alcohol...

answer

ROLE OF YEAST IN PRODUCTION OF BEER

question

Have a test tube of yeast in glucose solution. Put a layer of oil on top if you want the yeast to respire anaerobically (as it will prevent oxygen entering the solution.) Put the test tube in a water bath, heat the water to vary the temperature. Collect gas coming off in a tube then: count the bubbles; use downwards displacement.

answer

EXPERIMENT TO INVESTIGATE CARBON DIOXIDE PRODUCTION BY YEAST

question

Fish are a source of protein in many diets, humans consume a lot of fish for this reason. Fish farms are used to supply fish because: the fish's food safety standard is monitored; fresh water fish are declining; the demand for fish is increasing.

answer

FISH DEMAND

question

Fresh water fish may have come into contact with unclean water; containing sewage, waste, chemicals. In fish farming the water is filtered to make sure the fish don't come into contact with anything it would be unsafe to digest. Also if the water is cleaned regularly the spread of disease is minimised and the oxygen levels are high enough to maintain the respiration of the fish.

answer

WATER QUALITY (FISH FARMING)

question

is the fish being bred eating each other, this can be stopped by: separating fish of different ages; separating fish of different genders; feeding fish regularly; giving fish adequate room.

answer

INTERSPECIFIC PREDATION (FISH FARMING)

question

fencing the area the fish are in; putting nets around the area the fish are in; keeping the fish in inside tanks.

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PREVENTION OF INTERSPECIFIC PREDATION (FISH FARMING)

question

the water the fish are in should be changed regularly and their surroundings sterilised often. Also if small amounts of fish are kept together then disease can only contaminate a few fish.

answer

MINIMISING SPREAD OF DISEASE (FISH FARMING)

question

by changing the water in a tank, or changing the nets and location of fish kept outside.

answer

WASTE REMOVAL (FISH FARMING)

question

Fish need to be fed often in small amounts, this is so they don't starve but they wont be able to over eat. It is important to feed fish food with nutrients in for growth.

answer

FEEDING (FISH FARMING)

question

can ensure that farmers produce fish with desired characteristics by letting only the fish with the right characteristics breed and pass on the gene.

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SELECTIVE BREEDING (FISH FARMING)

question

can be used to join together different sections of DNA.

answer

LIGASE ENZYMES

question

effectively cut through DNA strands so that a section of DNA can be taken from a cell.

answer

RESTRICTION ENZYMES

question

Although GM plants appear to be only of benefit, there are people who claim side effects observed in lab animals such as: sterility; infant mortality; allergies; stunted growth. Another disadvantage would be that a broad spectrum herbicide that can be spread on GM crops will kill many plants in the wild not just the weeds threatening the crops.

answer

SIDE EFFECTS (GENETICALLY MODIFIED PLANTS)

question

Plants may also have DNA which makes them more resistant: for example genetically modified soya plants. This means that a broad spectrum herbicide that kills many different types of plant can be spread on the crops to kill weeds; where as before many different types of herbicides would have to be spread to avoid killing the crop (time consuming/ expensive.)

answer

RESISTANCE (GENETICALLY MODIFIED PLANTS)

question

They may have DNA which gives them more nutritional value: like golden rice which is rice with carotene in. This will benefit a population which eats a lot of rice by giving them a better diet.

answer

NUTRITIONAL VALUE (GENETICALLY MODIFIED PLANTS)

question

are ones with desired characteristics which are meant to enhance a crop.

answer

GENETICALLY MODIFIED PLANTS

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