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Information processing theory

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is the study of mental structures and processes that use the computer as a model for human thinking.

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hardware

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reference to brain structures involved in memory in the information processing theory

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software

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reference to learned memory strategies in the information processing theory

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encoding storage retrieval

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three processes one must go through to develop a memory

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encoding

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transforming information into a form that can be stored in memory

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storage

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keeping and maintaining the encoded information in the brain.

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consolidation

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this is the process that in order for a memory to be stored, a psychological change must take place in the brain.

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retrieval

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happens when information stored is brought to mind.

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memory

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a cognitive process that includes encoding, storage, and retrieval of information.

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Atkinson and Shiffrin

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they developed the model of memory that characterizes memory as three different interacting systems: Sensory Memory, Short-term memory, and Long-term memory.

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sensory memory

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is everything we see, hear, or otherwise sense. in this memory stage, visual images are held for a fraction of a second and auditory sounds are held for 2

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short-term memory

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working memory

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short-term memory

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encoded information that we attend to enters this stage of memory. It can hold up to seven items for less than 30 seconds

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displacement

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this occurs when short-term memory is filled to capacity and each new incoming item pushes out an existing item, which is then forgotten.

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chunking

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this is a memory strategy that involves grouping or organizing bits of information into larger units, which are easier to remember. It can be in for form of a syllable, a word, an acronym, or a number.

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rehearsal

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is the act of purposely repeating information to maintain it in short-term memory

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working memory

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is the memory subsystem that we use when we try to understand information, remmeber it, or use it to solve a problem or communicate with someone.

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prefrontal cortex

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is the site in the brain that is activated when we are using our working memories.

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maintenance rehearsal

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repeating information in short-term memory until it is no longer needed; it can eventually lead to storage of information on long-term memory. examples would be telephone numbers, liscense plates, or multiplication tables.

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elaborative rehearsal

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is a memory strategy that involves relating new information to something that is already known.

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craik and lockhart

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they developed the levels of processing model and theorized on maintenance and elaborative rehearsal.

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level of processing model

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this model proposes that maintenance rehearsal involves \"shallow\" processing (like knowing the sound of a word) and elaborative rehearsal involves \"deep\" processing (based on the meaning of the word).

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deep processing

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this is more likely to lead to long-term memory

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long-term memory

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the memory system witha vertually unlimited capacity that contains vast stores of a person's permanent or relatively permanent memories.

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declarative memory

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the subsystem withing long-term memory that stores facts, information, and personal life events that can be brought to mind verbally or in the form of images and then declared or stated; also called explicit memory. It is memory with conscious recall.

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explicit memory

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is also known as declarative memory and is memory with conscious recall

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episodic memory

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the type of declarative memory that records events as they have been subjectively experienced. example: your highschool graduation, the birth of your first child.

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semantic memory

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the type of declarative memory that stores general knowledge, or objective facts and information example: bananas are yellow, spiders have eight legs.

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non declarative memory

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the subsystem within long-term memory that stores motor skills, habits, and simple classically conditioned responses; also called implicit memory. It is memory without conscious recall.

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implicit memory

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is also known as non declarative memory. It is memory without conscious recall.

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procedural memory

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is a non declarative memory that involves motor skills and habits. examples would be how to drive a car, brushing your teeth, riding a bike.

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classically conditioned memory

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a non declarative memory in that conditioned responses occur to conditioned stimuli. example would be phobias, prejudice and other attitudes.

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priming

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the phenomenon by which an earlier encounter with a stimulus such as a word or a picture increases the speed or accuracy of naming that stimulus or a related stimulus at a later time. an example is a heightened fear after reading a scary novel. Early exposure to this facilitates retreival.

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recall

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a memory task in which a person must produce required information by searching memory. an example would be an essay question on a test.

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retrieval cue

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any stimulus or bit of information that aids in retrieving particular information from long term memory.

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serial recall

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is information recalled in a specific order

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free recall

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remembering items in any order

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recognition

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a memory task in which a person must simply identify material as familiar or as having been encountered before. an example would me a multiple choice test question.

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relearning method

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a measure of memory in which retention is expressed as the percentage of time saved when material is relearned compared with the time required to learn the material originally.

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savings score

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the percentage of time saved when relearning material compared with the amount of time required for the original learning.

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serial position effect

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the finding that for information learned in a sequence, recall is better for the beginning and ending items than for the middle items in the sequence.

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primacy effect

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the tendency to recall the first items in a sequence more readily than the middle items.

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recency effect

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the tendency to recall the last items in a sequence more readily than those in the middle.

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state dependent memory effect

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is the tendency to recall information better if one is in the same pharmacological or phychological state as when the information was learned. People also tend to recall material more easily if they are in the same physical location during recall as during the origianl learning.

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reconstruction

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because all experiences leave a permanent record in the brain this is an account of an event that has been pieced together from a few highlights using information that may or may not be accurate.

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schemas

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influence the reconstructive memory process. the integrated framewords of knowledge and assumptions a person has about people, objects, and events, which affect how the person encodes and recalls information. these are based on situational averages.

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positive bias

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is reconstruction of memories in ways that cause pleasant events to be better remembered than unpleasant ones and memories of unpleasant events to become more pleasant over time. example- recalling grades that you made in high school and remembering only the A's.

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flashbulb memory

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an extremely vivid memory of the conditions surrounding one's first hearing the news of a surprising, shocking, or highly emotional event.

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eidetic imagry

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the ability to retain the image of a visual stimulus for several minutes after it has been removed from view and to use this retained image to answer questions about the visual stimulus. children having photographic memories.

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how culture influences memory

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the existence of oral historians in some cultures suggests that the ability to remember certain kinds of material may be influenced by culture. The The status of the role and the importance of the aprticular informaiton to members of the culture motivate individuals to sotre and retrieve large amounts of such information. Their memory for other kinds of information, however, is no better than that of others. In additions, we more easily remember stories set in our own culture.

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eyewitness testimony reliability

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is reduced when witnesses view a photograph of the suspect before viewing the lineup, when members of a lineup don't sufficiently resemble each other; when members of a lineup are viewed at the same time rather than one by one, when the perpetrator's race is different from that of the eyewitness, when a weapon has been used in the crime, and when leading questions are asked to elicit information from the witness.

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evidence of repressed memory

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if you are unable to remember any specific instances of abuse...but still have a feeling that something happened to you, it probably did. If you think you were abused and your life shows the symptoms, then you were. Many psychologists claim that such \"recovered\" memories are false memories created by the suggestions of therapists. Repeated exposure to suggestions of false memories can create those memories.

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Hippocampus

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is vital in the formation of episodic memories. it is not fully developed in the first few years of life. It also specializes in navigational skills. if this is removed, the ability to use working memory is gone and the ability to place it into long-term memory is gone. The capacity of short-term memory stays the same and past memories up to the point of removal stay the same. No memory after is retained.

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removal of the hippocampus

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affets declarative, long term memory, the ability to store facts, personal experiences, names, faces, and telephone numbers. Skills can still be aquired by repetative practice or undeclarative memory yet one can not remember doing so.

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Semantic memory

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depends not only on the hippocampus but also the hippocampus region as well.

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infantile amnesia

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the relative inability of older children and adults to recall events from the first few years of life.

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hippocampal region

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a part of the limbic system, which includes the hippocampus itself and the underlying cortical areas, involved in the formation of semantic memories.

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long term potentiation

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an increase in the efficiency of neural transmission at the synapses that lasts for hours or longer. This does not take place unless both the sending and the receiving neurons are activated at the same time by intense stimulation and the receiving neuron must be ready to fire when stimulation occurs. blocking this will interfere with learning. it can be blocked by depression, bipolar disorder, alzheimer's disease and Parkinson's disease.

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hormones

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enable humans to survive, and they also imprint powerful and enduring memories of the circumstances surrounding threatening situations. these include epinephrine (adrenaline), norepinephrine (noradrenaline).

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estrogen

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is linked to working memory effeciency. it also plays some role in the develpment and maintenance of synapses in areas of the brain known to be associated with memory.

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amnesia

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a partial or complete loss of memory due to loss of consciousness, brain damage, or some psychological cause.

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anterograde amnesia

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the inability to form long-term memories of events occurring after a brain injury or brain surgery, although memories formed before the trauma are usually intact and short-term memory is unaffected. .

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retrograde amnesia

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a loss of memory for experiences that occurred shortly before a loss of consciousness.example is Jason Bourne from the Bourne movies

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dementias

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a collection of neurological disorders in which degenerative processes in the brain diminish sufferers' ability to remember and process information. Individuals effected by this lose touch with both their episodic and semantic memories.

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nonsense syllable

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a consonant-vowel-consonant combination that does not spell a word and is used in memory research.

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Hermann Ebbinghaus

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he conducted the first experimental studies on learning and memory. He invented the nonsense syllable and experimented by memorizing lists of these nonsense syllables by repeating them over and over again. He used the relearning method as a test of memory and plotted the curve of forgetting. He discovered that the largest amount of forgetting occurs very quickly and then tapers off.

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encoding failure

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a cause of forgetting that occurs when information was never put into long-term memory.

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decay theory

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the oldest theory of forgetting, which holds that memories, if not used, fade with time and ultimately diappear altogether. this fading of memories is a cause of forgetting in sensory and short-term but not in the long-term memory.

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interference

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a cause of forgetting that occurs because information or associations stored either before or after a given memory hinder the ability to remember it.

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stroop test

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requires research participants to memorized color words that are shown in colored type. remembering the word red is much easier if it is written in red than if it is written in any other color.

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before or after

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Information or associations stored either _____ or _____ a given memory can interfere with the ability to remember it.

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proactive interference

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occurs when information or experiences already stored in long-term memory hinder the ability to remember newer information. like calling your new boyfriend by your old boyfriends name.

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retroactive interference

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happens when new learning interferes with the ability to remember previously learned information. this would be like taking a psychology class and forgetting what you learned in another class you already took. these affects are often temporary

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consolidation failure

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any disruption in the consolidation process that prevents a long-term memory from forming. this can result from anything that causes a person to lose consciousness like a car accident, a blow to the head, a seizure, or an electroconvulsive shock treatment given for severe depression.

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motivated forgetting

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forgetting through suppression or repression in order to protect oneself from material that is painful, frightening, or otherwise unpleasant. victims of rape or war veterans use this for forgetting.

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repression

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completely removing unpleasant memories from one's consciusness, so that one is no longer aware that a painful event occurred.

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prospective forgetting

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not remembering to carry out some intended action. like forgetting to go to the mail box. you most likely forget things that are unimportant, unpleasant, or burdensome.

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retrieval failure

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not remembering something one is certain of knowing. it is an inability to locate the needed information. like after studying and while taking the test, you cannot remember the answer to the question even though you studied it.

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tip of the tounge phenomenon

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the experience of knowing that a particular piece of information has been learned but being unable to retrieve it.

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overlearning

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practicing or studying material beyond the point where it can be repeated once without error.

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massed practice

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learning in one long practice session without rest periods. example would be cramming.

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spaced practice

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learning in short practice sessions with rest periods in between.

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