question

Sensory stimuli that elicit emotional responses also elicit two other responses. What are those responses?

answer

Autonomic responses (ANS) Conscious, intentional responses (neocortex)

question

Define what the limbic system is concerned with in the brain.

answer

Feelings, emotions, and drive-related behaviors important to survival of species

question

The limbic lobe is like a ring, starting from the posterior aspect of the lobe and circling CC name the areas of the cortex associated with the limbic lobe.

answer

Paraterminal gyrus Subcallosal area Cingulate gyrus Isthmus Parahippocampus gyrus Uncus

question

Name the components of the limbic system that are part of of a diverse collection of telencephalic, diencephalic and brainstem structures.

answer

Cingulate and parahippocampal gyri Amygdala (center of limic system) Hippocampus (learning and memory tied with emotions) [Dont worry about the rest] Septal nuclei Hypothalamus Reticular formation (part of midbrain) Olfactory areas (modest in humans)

question

What structures are the central components of the limbic subsystems?

answer

Hippocampus Amygdala

question

What part of the neocortex and thalamus is the amygdala related to?

answer

Neocortex: Insula Ventromedial prefrontal Anterior temporal Thalamus: DM

question

What part of the neocortex and thalamus is the hippocampus related to?

answer

Neocortex: Posterior cingulate Parahippocampal Thalamus: Anterior thalamic nucleus Mammillary bodies

question

The amygdala is a collection of about a dozen nuclei divided into what three areas?

answer

Central Medial Basolateral

question

Describe the central area of the amygdala.

answer

Part of the action system = expression of emotions Hypothalamus controls pituitary gland Brainstem controls reticular formation

question

Describe the medial area of the amygdala.

answer

Olfactory system (small in humans) Mediates olfactory/nasal input into a limbic emotion response

question

Describe the basolateral amygdala.

answer

Central to emotional responses Is largest in humans

question

Name the different parts of input to the amygdala.

answer

Olfactory stimuli (olfactory bulb) Brainstem, Hypothalamus, Septum Thalamus, visual association cortex, hippocampus, other unimodal sensory cortex (SS, auditory, taste) [anything that ties into emotion]

question

What part of the amygdala does the input from the olfactory system project to and what is its function?

answer

Projects to the medial part of the amygdala Function: emotions related to smell (do we like it or not?)

question

What part of the amygdala does the input from the brainstem, hypothalamus, and septum project to?

answer

Projects to the central part of the amygdala. NOTE: The septum comes from RF via the stria terminalis and projects to the amygdala

question

What part of the amygdala does the input from the thalamus, visual association cortex, hippocampus, and other unimodal sensory project to and what are all the functions of the inputs?

answer

All will go into the basolateral amygdala Cortex information: Sensory input from visual, auditory, taste = strong comfort or discomfort rating Thalamus: Raw sensory signals (haven't gotten to the cortex yet = visual information received without information on how we feel about it)

question

Most projections into the amygdala are reciprocated except for one, which one?

answer

Olfactory bulb

question

Name the output projections from the central part of the amygdala and their function.

answer

Hypothalamus, brainstem, septum Hypothalamus and Brainstem = Mediate RF and PG (release hormones)

question

Name the output projections from the basolateral part of the amygdala and their function.

answer

Thalamus = gating/controlling/enhancing SS signals that come through the thalamus Hippocampus = center of our thought, learning, and memory = you can eveoke crying thinking about a memory Ventral striatum = mediates reward and the expectation of reward (important in things like addiction)

question

Describe the limbic basal ganglia loop

answer

Cortical input from limbic cx, amygdala, and hippocampus Ventral striatum (nucleus accumbens and septal nuclei) Ventral pallidum (just below globus pallidus) Dorsomedial thalamus Back to cortex Action/movement related to stimuli and expected reward

question

Name the four functions of the amygdala related to the bridge between the ANS and voluntary responses to sensory input.

answer

Links perception of sensory input (hunger, danger, pain) with appropriate response (ANS, drive-related, voluntary) Become aware of subjective feelings related to sensory input (conscious appreciation of sensation-emotion) Act on stimulus/reward information (basal ganglia loop) Emotional memory of sensory events, good or bad (hippocampus)

question

What is the affect on memory after removal of the amygdala?

answer

Not usually a large memory deficit BUT there is a loss of emotional content to memories NOTE: Depends on how much of the amygdala is removed.

question

What happens when there is bilateral removal of the amygdala?

answer

Causes [subject] to become placid with reduced fear and aggression

question

Depending on what area of the amygdala is stimulated, what is the response in animals and humans?

answer

Animals= become attentive, followed by defensive behaviors, aggression or fleeing Humans = become fearful with associated autonomic responses

question

Describe the pathway of the HPA stress axis.

answer

Limbic input = stress (can be real or perceived) Neurons in the hypothalamus release CRH Trickles down into the anterior pituitary gland Releases ACTh Causes modified postganglionic sympathetic neurons in the adrenal gland to release NE into the blood Fight or flight response

question

Describe the HPA stress axis when inhibition occurs. (NOT SURE HOW TO PHRASE THIS)

answer

Hypothalamus releases CRH neurons Can with control pituitary gland (OR control down the brainstem - RF and sympathetic nervous system) Release ACTH into adrenal glands Cortisol dampens immune cells = inhibits immune response Inhibition of immune cells are kept in check by sympathetic feedback Chronic stress occurs (negative feedback system is lost, overly inhibited, depressed immune system, getting sick)

question

T/F. The amygdala and hippocampus input regulates corticotropin releasing hormone (CRH) neurons in the hypothalamus.

answer

TRUE

question

Sensory input (stress stimulis) to basolateral amygdala is relayed to the ___(1)_____ of the amygdala which causes hypothalamic neurons to release ___(2)_______

answer

(1) central nucleus (2) CRH

question

ACTH causes the adrenal gland to release cortisol into the blood. What is the response?

answer

Fight or flight Activates enery stores Suppresses immune system

question

Normal levels of cortisol cause hippocampal neurons to suppress CRH release. In the cases of chronic stress what occurs?

answer

Continuous exposure of hippocampus neurons to cortisol causes them to degenerate and die Loose (-) feedback

question

Define engram.

answer

Physical representation or location of a memory NOTE: Experiments were done on rats to run a maze and learn it. They made lesions in different parts of the brain. Learned the more brain area you destroy, the more memory is affected

question

Define amnesia.

answer

Serious loss of memory and/or ability to learn Retrograde (prior to trauma) or anterograde (following trauma)

question

Define dementia.

answer

Loss of cognitive and intellectual functions without impairment of perception or consciousness Progressive, disoriented (unsure of where they are), memory may or may not be affected, poor judgement and problem solving skills Types of dementia include: Alzheimer's Aids Epilepsy

question

Define declarative (explicit) memory.

answer

Consciously recalled Easier to form and easier to lose Episodic = experiences and events Semantic = facts

question

Define non-declarative/procedural (implicit) memory.

answer

Memory for skill or behavior, subconsciously recalled Harder to form but are less likely to be forgotten Example:Riding ride a bike [learning and remembering]

question

Name the 3 funcitonal elements of forming declarative memory.

answer

Acquisition Storage Retrieval

question

How does information get encoded into your membory?

answer

Information is encoded and becomes working memory (keep repeating to yourself), some will get consolidated (sleep) and become long term memory

question

What area of the brain is working memory associated with?

answer

Neocortex You remember it long enough to spit it out

question

What area of the brain is declarative, long term memory associated with?

answer

Medial temporal lobe Medial diencephalon Hippocampus

question

Name the areas of the brain associated with skills and habits of nondeclarative, long-term memory.

answer

Basal ganglia Cerebellum Neocortex

question

Name the area of the brain associated with emotion of nondeclarative, long-term memory.

answer

Amygdala

question

Name the area of the brain associated with conditioned reflexes of nondeclarative, long-term memory.

answer

Cerebellum

question

T/F. Nondeclarative memory involves the hippocampus.

answer

FALSE. It doesn't involved the hippocampus

question

Which lobe is critical for declarative memory?

answer

Medial temporal lobe

question

What is the result of a bilateral removal of the hippocampus and adjacent temporal lobe?

answer

Inability to form new declarative memeory Severe anterograde amnesia with some retrograde amnesia, but no loss of procedural memory

question

Name the 3 zones of the hippocampus and how many layers are associated with each zone.

answer

Dentate gyrus = 3 layered cortex Hippocampus proper = 3 layered cortex Subiculum = transitional cortex = 3 [3 layers of cortex is all that you need to know]

question

Describe the flow of information through the hippocampus. (??????? LOOK THIS UP)

answer

Information comes in from the cortex just adjacent to the hippocampus (entorhinal cortex) Synapse at dentate gyrus Flee and enter into HP Granule cells will come along and encounter the dendrites of the peraminal cells Axons continue along and interact with other cells along the HP (CA1, CA3) Information is then relayed to interact and synapse with cells in the subiculum Information leaves and goes back out to the adjacent cortex or forms a fiber bundle = alveus A structure called the fimbria will form the fornix

question

What is the importance of the fornix?

answer

Important in relaying information related to memory.

question

List the inputs to the hippocampus.

answer

Olfactory into the entorhinal cortex Amygdala Septum Entorhinal cortex (vast majority of input from here)

question

List the imputs to the entorhinal cortex which will then input into the hippocampus.

answer

Visual Taste Auditory SS Motor

question

List the outputs from the hippocampus.

answer

Most will come back out the entorhinal cortex Amygdala Along the fornix

question

From the fornix where does the information from the hippocampus project to?

answer

Anteiror body of thalamus Mammillary bodies Hypothalamus Ventral striatum Septum

question

T/F. Memories of great or horrible experiences are stronger than memories of neutral experiences.

answer

TRUE

question

Define synaptic plasticity.

answer

Synaptic transmission can be enhanced or depressed Molecular mechanism for learning

question

Describe the short term enhancement of memory as well as the short derm depression of memory

answer

STEM = Calcium (if enhanced will increase memory) STDM Decrease in memory Binding to receptors on presynaptic elements Retrograde the synapse Post-synaptic desensitization

question

Describe long term potentiation or depression of memory.

answer

Memories that we will keep Important players = NMDA receptors NMDA recpetors bind to glutamate Calcium channels open More calcium = more AMPA receptors inserted into membrane (type of glutamate) Results in the form of synapses that will persist over time High amounts we will find in the hippocampus NOTE: If there is less calcium, AMPA receptors will get sucked back into the cell

question

Describe the flow of long term potentiation = cells that fire together are wired together.

answer

Shock Causes an EPSP (NT glutamate released) Binds to NMDA Opens up calcium channels Influx of calcium causes more AMPA receptors to get inserted into the membrane We now have an altered morphology after stimulating this multiple times = repetition Persists for weeks or months unless it isn't used, then it will go away sooner

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