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Classical Conditioning

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the procedure of repeatedly pairing an initially neutral stimulus (the conditioned stimulus) and an unconditioned stimulus, through which the conditioned stimulus develops the capacity to elicit a conditioned response; help with understanding "involuntary" behaviors; only occurs if the CS is predictive of something important

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Conditioned Reflexes

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another name for a conditioned response

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Unconditioned Stimulus (US)

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in classical conditioning, a stimulus that naturally elicits a specific response (an unconditioned response)

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Unconditioned Response (UR)

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in classical conditioning, an innate response that is elicited by an unconditioned stimulus

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Conditioned Stimulus (CS)

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an initially neutral stimulus that develops the capacity to elicit a conditioned response after it is paired with an unconditioned stimulus

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Conditioned Response (CR)

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the response that is elicited by a conditioned stimulus after classical conditioning has taken place

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Conditioned Emotional Response

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a classical conditioning procedure in which the conditioned stimulus signals that an aversive event is coming; the measure of conditioning is the suppression of ongoing behavior when the conditioned stimulus is presented; also called conditioned suppression

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Skin Conductance Response (SCR)

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a change in the electrical conductivity of the skin often caused by emotions such as fear or surprise, which can be measured by placing sensors on a person's palm

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Stimulus Substitution Theory

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Pavlov's theory of classical conditioning, which states that the conditioned stimulus becomes a substitute for the unconditioned stimulus and elicits the same response after repeated pairings

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Sign-Tracking Theory

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a theory of classical conditioning that states that animals tend to orient themselves toward, approach, and explore any stimuli that are good predictors of important events, such as the delivery of food

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Conditioned Compensatory Responses

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in classical conditioning, a conditioned response that is the opposite of the unconditioned response; examples demonstrate that stimulus substitution theory is inadequate as a general theory of classical conditioning; tries to compensate or counteract the unconditioned response

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S-R Association

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a hypothetical association between brain areas representing the conditioned stimulus and a response, which might develop during classical conditioning and thereby give the conditioned stimulus the capacity to elicit a conditioned response; suggests a direct association between the CS Center and the response center

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S-S Association

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a hypothetical association between brain areas representing two different stimuli, which might develop if the two stimuli are paired; suggests a less direct association between the CS Center and the response center because an association between the CS Center and US Center is formed during conditioning (CS Center activates the US Center, which activates the response center)

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Acquisition Phase

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the period in the learning process when an individual is learning a new behavior; will be the fastest growth in excitatory conditioning

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Extinction

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in classical conditioning, presenting the conditioned stimulus without the unconditioned stimulus; response decreases and eventually disappears; does not eliminate the association created during the acquisition phase; according to the Rescorla-Wagner Model, the strength of the expected US will be greater than the strength of the actual US, so both CS will acquire some inhibitory conditioning

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Spontaneous Recovery

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in classical conditioning, the reappearance of a response that has undergone extinction after a passage of time without further conditioning trials; if more time elapses between the first and second extinction sessions, more spontaneous recovery is observed; decreases with time

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Disinhibition

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in classical conditioning, the reappearance of a conditioned response to a stimulus that has undergone extinction that can occur if a novel stimulus is presented shortly before the extinguished stimulus; Pavlov stated the presentation of a distracting stimulus disrupts the fragile inhibition that supposedly develops during extinction

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Conditioned Inhibitor

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in classical conditioning, a conditioned stimulus that prevents the occurrence of a conditioned response or reduces the size of the conditioned response from what it would otherwise be; also called an inhibitory CS

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Excitatory CS

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in classical conditioning, a conditioned stimulus that regularly elicits a conditioned response

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Compound CS

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in classical conditioning, the simultaneous presentation of two or more conditioned stimulus

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Generalization

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the transfer of a learned response from one stimulus to another, similar stmulus

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Generalization Gradient

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a graphic representation of generalization in which the x-axis plots some dimension along which the test stimuli are varied and the y-axis shows the strength of conditioned responding to the different stimuli; in general, the more similar a stimulus is to the training stimulus, the greater will be its capacity to elicit CRs

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Discrimination

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in classical conditioning, learning to respond to one stimulus but not to another, similar stimulus

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Short-Delay Conditioning

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a classical conditioning procedure in which the conditioned stimulus begins a second or so before the unconditioned stimulus; produces the strongest and most rapid conditioning

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Simultaneous Conditioning

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a type of classical conditioning in which the conditioned stimulus and unconditioned stimulus begin at the same moment - much weaker than short-delay conditioning because the CS cannot predict the arrival of the US and may not notice or be able to respond to the CS at the same time as the US

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Trace Conditioning

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a classical conditioning procedure in which the conditioned stimulus and the unconditioned stimulus are separated by some time interval in which neither stimulus is present - the subject must rely on a "memory trace" of the CS if conditioning is to occur

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CS-US Interval

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in classical conditioning, the amount of time between the start of the conditioned stimulus and the start of the unconditioned stimulus; as this is increased, the level of conditioning declines systematically

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Long-Delay Conditioning

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a type of classical conditioning in which the conditioned stimulus precedes that of the unconditioned stimulus by at least several seconds and continues until the unconditioned stimulus is presented

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Backward Conditioning

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a classical conditioning procedure in which the conditioned stimulus is presented after the unconditioned stimulus; may result in a weak excitatory association, but after a significant number of trials, the CS will become inhibitory

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Second-Order Conditioning

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a classical conditioning procedure in which a conditioned response is transferred from one stimulus to another by pairing a neutral stimulus with a previously conditioned one

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First-Order CS

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in classical conditioning, a stimulus that has been conditioned by pairing it directly with the unconditioned stimulus

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Evaluative Conditioning

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a form of second-order classical conditioning with human subjects in which neutral stimuli are paired with a positive or negative stimuli; then the subjects are asked to rate how much they like or dislike the stimuli

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Systematic Desensitization

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a behavioral treatment for phobias that involves slowly presenting the patient with increasingly strong fear-provoking stimuli while keeping the patient in a very relaxed state

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Progression Relaxation

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a technique for inducing a state of bodily calm and relaxation by having the person alternatively tense and relax specific groups of muscles

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Virtual Reality Therapy

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a type of systematic desensitization in which a patient wears a headset that displays realistic visual images that change with every head movement, stimulating a three-dimensional environment

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Aversive Counterconditioning

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a treatment for alcoholism and other addictions in which the addictive substance is paired with an aversive stimulus, such as an illness-inducing drug, designed to condition an aversive response to the addictive substance

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Blocking

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in classical conditioning, the finding that there is little or no conditioning to a stimulus if it is presented along with a previously conditioned stimulus on conditioning trials; explained by the Rescorla-Wagner Model: no conditioning occurs to the added CS because there is no surprise (the strength of the subject's expectation matches the strength of the US)

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Control Group

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in experimental research, a group of subjects that receives no special training or treatment and whose performance is compared to that of the experimental group

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Rescorla-Wagner Model

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a mathematical theory designed to predict the outcome of classical conditioning procedures the outcome of classical conditioning procedures on a trial-by-trial basis that states that, on each trial, the amount of excitatory or inhibitory conditioning depends on the associative strengths of all the conditioned stimuli that are present and on the intensity of the unconditioned stimulus; learning will occur only when the subject is surprised, that is, when what happens is actually different from what the subjects expected to happen

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Overshadowing

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in classical conditioning, the finding that there is less conditioning to a weak conditioned stimulus if it is presented along with a more intense conditioned stimulus; according to the Rescorla-Wagner Model, more salient stimuli will condition faster than less salient stimuli

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Overexpectation Effect

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a decrease in the strength of responding to two conditioned stimuli that have been trained separately that occurs if they are presented as a compound CS and followed by the usual unconditioned stimulus

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CS Preexposure Effect

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the finding that classical conditioning proceeds more slowly if the conditioned stimulus is repeatedly presented by itself before it is paired with the unconditioned stimulus; evidence for the assumption that the conditionability of a CS, not the effectiveness of the US, changes from one situation to another

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Comparator Theories

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A theory of classical conditioning that states that the strength of a conditioned response depends on a comparison of the likelihood of an unconditioned stimulus in the presence of the conditioned stimulus versus its absence; do not make predictions on a trial-by-trial basis because they assume that what is important is not the events of individual trials, but rather the overall, long-term correlation between a CS and the US; propose the correlation between CS and US does not affect the learning of a conditioned response, but rather its performance; assume that a CS will not elicit a conditioned response unless it has greater excitatory than the contextual stimuli

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Contextual Stimuli

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the sights, sounds, and smells of a creature's environment; assumed by Comparator Theories to have acquired equal excitatory strengths

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Sensory Preconditioning

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a classical conditioning procedure in which two neutral stimuli are repeatedly paired before either is paired with an unconditioned stimulus; provides further evidence for the existence of S-S associations

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Occasion Setter

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in classical conditioning, a stimulus that does not itself elicit a response, but its presence causes another stimulus to elicits a conditioned response; hypothesized to regulate a CS-US association

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Equipotentiality Premise

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the hypothesis that a stimulus or response that is difficult to condition in one context should be difficult to condition in all other contexts; a given stimulus will be equally good (or equally bad) CS in all contexts

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Prepared Associations

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an association between stimuli, or between stimuli and responses, that members of a particular species have an innate tendency to learn quickly and easily

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Tolerance

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a decrease in the effects of a drug that is observed after repeated use of the drug

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Conditioned Opponent Theory

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a theory of classical conditioning that states that the later portions of an unconditioned response (which are often opposite in form to the early portions) become associated with the conditioned stimulus; the theory accounts for conditioned responses that appear to be the opposite of the unconditioned response; in relation to the opponent process theory, the b-process may appear to grow because any stimulus that is paired with the emotional experience will become a CS that can later elicit the b-process - an increase in the size of the b-process is a CR elicited by one or more CSs

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Sometimes Opponent Process (SOP)

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a general theory of classical conditioning developed by Allan Wagner, which speculates about why some conditioned responses are similar in form and others are opposite in form to the unconditioned response; the CR will mimic the UR if the UR is monophasic, but it will be the opposite of the UR if the UR is biphasic

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Cerebellum

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a part of the brain, located in the back of the head beneath the cerebral cortex, that is important for many skilled movements

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Negative Reinforcement

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a behavior strengthening procedure in which an aversive stimulus is removed or omitted if the behavior occurs; a behavior increases in frequency if some stimulus is removed after the behavior occurs

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Escape

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a type of negative reinforcement in which performing a response leads to the termination of an aversive stimulus

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Avoidance

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a type of negative reinforcement in which performing a response prevents an aversive stimulus from occurring in the first place

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Punishment

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a behavior reduction procedure in which the occurrence of a behavior is followed by an aversive stimulus

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Negative Punishment

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a behavior reduction procedure, more commonly called omission, in which a desired stimulus is removed or omitted if the behavior occurs

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Omission

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a behavior reduction procedure in which a desired stimulus is removed or omitted if the unwanted behavior occurs

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Shuttle Box

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an experimental chamber with two rectangular compartments separated by a barrier several inches high; an animal may be required to move from one compartment to the other to escape or avoid an aversive stimulus, such as shock

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Avoidance Paradox

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the puzzle about how the nonoccurrence of an aversive event can serve as a reinforcer for an avoidance response

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Two-Factor Theory

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the theory that both classical conditioning (learning to fear a stimulus and operant conditioning (escape from the fear-eliciting stimulus) are required for avoidance responding; the theory states that the reinforcer for the behavior is not avoidance of the aversive stimulus (shock), but escape for a fear-eliciting CS (darkness); predicts avoidance responding should gradually deteriorate after a series of trials without shock

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One-Factor Theory

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a theory of avoidance that states that avoidance of an aversive stimulus, such as a shock, can in itself serve as a reinforcer, and that the classical conditioning component of two-factor theory is not necessary

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Sidman Avoidance Task

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an avoidance procedure in which shocks occur at regular intervals if the subject does not respond, but a response postpones the next shock for a fixed period of time

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Free-Operant Avoidance

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another name for the Sidman avoidance task

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Cognitive Theory of Avoidance

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the theory that avoidance responses will occur when the individual has expectations that (1) an aversive event will occur if no response is made and (2) the aversive event will be avoided if a response is made; avoidance responding will continue until one or both of these expectations are violated; a subject's behavior will change in an avoidance task whenever there is a discrepancy between expectancy and observation

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Response Blocking

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a behavior reduction procedure in which the individual is physically prevented from making an unwanted response; in extinction avoidance responding, this can teach the individual that the avoidance response is no longer necessary; evidence shows this as an effective way to speed the extinction of avoidance responses

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Flooding

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a treatment of phobias in which a patient is presented with a highly feared object or situation, which is not removed until the patient's fear diminishes

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Species-Specific Defense Reactions (SSDRs)

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an innate defensive reaction that occurs when an animal encounters any kind of new or sudden stimulus in the wild; usually fall into categories of freezing, fleeing, or fighting (adopting an aggressive posture and/or behaviors)

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Learned Helplessness

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Seligman's term for the impaired ability to learn an avoidance response that occurs after a subject has been exposed to inescapable aversive stimuli; three components: motivational, cognitive, and emotional; most pronounced when the upcoming task appears insurmountable; varies: specific to one situation or fairly global, attributed to internal or external factors, and stable (long-term) or unstable (short-term)

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ABAB Design

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a design for behavioral treatment where each "A" phase is a baseline phase in which the patient's behavior is recorded but no treatment is given, and each "B" phase is a treatment phase

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Overcorrection

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a behavioral reduction procedure in which the individual is required to make several repetitions of an alternate, more desirable behavior if an undesired behavior occurs; often involves restitution and positive practice (practicing a better behavior)

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Escape Extinction

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a procedure used to eliminate an unwanted behavior that has been previously reinforced by escape from an unpleasant situation, in which escape is prevented if the unwanted behavior occurs

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Noncontingent Reinforcement

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the delivery of free reinforcers at random times regardless of the subject's behavior

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Stimulus Satiation

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a behavior reduction procedure in which the reinforcer is presented in such great quantities that it loses its effectiveness

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Eyeblink Conditioning

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a type of conditioning that involves a mild electric shock as a US, which reliably elicits an eyeblink as a UR; the CS is short and the CR is an eyeblink, but in a different form than the UR

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Taste Aversion Learning

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a type of classical conditioning procedure, in which a taste of something the subject eats or drinks serves as a CS; after eating the food the subject will be given an injection of poison to make the animal sick; the subject will most likely never eat this CS again

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Problems with the Stimulus Substitution Theory

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the CR is almost never an exact replica of the UR; not all parts of the UR to a stimulus become part of the CR

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Hilgard's Suggestion with Stimulus Substitution Theory

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it should be acknowledged that only some components of the UR are transferred to the CR; it should be recognized that a CS frequently elicits unconditioned responses of its own

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US Center

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a location in the brain proposed by Pavlov that becomes active whenever a US is presented; believed to be innately connected to the Response Center because the US can elicit a UR without any prior training

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CS Center

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a location in the brain proposed by Pavlov that becomes active whenever a CS is presented

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Response Center

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a location in the brain proposed by Pavlov that becomes active for every UR; the activation of this area of the brain was believed to initiate the neural commands tat ultimately produce the observed response; believed to be innately connected to the US Center because the US can elicit a UR without any prior training

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Rescorla's Conditioned Suppression Experiment

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an experiment done on rats to test S-S Connections or S-R Connections; the first phase involved two groups of rats receiving identical classical conditioning with a light as a CS and a noise as a US; the second phase created a habituation for the loud noise in one group, whereas the experimental group spent time in the chamber without a stimulus; the third phase presented the light and found that the habituation group had less of a response to the light then the control group; Conclusion: the strength of the CR is dependent on the continued strength of the US-response association, as predicted by the S-S position but not the S-R position

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US Devaluation

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the technique of decreasing the effectiveness of the US after an excitatory CS has been created

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K.White and Davey

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two experimenters who presented subjects with a picture of a triangle followed by a low tone, which did not produce a response; the tone was increased to become aversive and then the triangle was presented again without the tone to produce a greater skin conductive response; Conclusion: subjects had formed a S-S association between the triangle and the tone because the response to the triangle can be changed by changing the value of the tone without further presentations of the triangle

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Asymptote

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the stable maximum level of conditioned responding that is gradually approached as conditioning proceeds; influenced by the size or intensity of the US - will be higher if a stronger stimulus is used as a US (also result in faster conditioning)

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Inhibition Theory

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a theory that states that after extinction is complete, the subject is left with two counteracting associations, the excitatory and inhibitory associations; when extinction is complete, the effects of the excitatory and inhibitory associations cancel out, so that the US center is no longer activated by the presentation of the CS

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Excitatory Association

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the CS-US association formed during acquisition because, according to the inhibition theory, through this association the CS now excites, or activates, the US center

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Inhibitory Association

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the CS-US association formed during extinction because, according to the inhibition theory, through this association the CS now inhibits the US center; more fragile than excitatory associations, and they are therefore more severely weakened by the passage of time; becomes less fragile with repeated extinction sessions, until it can withstand the passage of time as well as the excitatory association

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Robbins (1990)

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created a theory of spontaneous recovery that during extinction, the subject stops "processing" or "paying attention to" the CS causing conditioned responses to disappear, but attention can be brought back (spontaneous recovery)

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Capaldi (1996)

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created a theory of spontaneous recovery that the CS becomes an ambiguous stimulus because it has been associated both with the US and then with the absence of the US

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Reacquisition Phase

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the second acquisition phase - an acquisition phase with the same US and CS after extinction; takes less time than the original acquisition phase and continues to decrease in time as it is repeated following extinctions

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Summation Test

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the procedure of testing the combined effects of a known excitatory CS and a possible inhibitory CS

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Retardation Test

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the procedure of testing for the inhibitory properties of a CS - the development of conditioned responding should be retarded with a CS that is initially inhibitory

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Contiguity

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original idea of classical conditioning that two ideas will be associated if they tend to occur together in space or time - disputed by Rescorla, in favor of correlaiton

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Third-Order Conditioning

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the transfer of a CR from a second-order CS to yet another stimulus

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Kamin (1968)

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a scientist who conducted a conditioned suppression procedure with a blocking group and a control group of rats; first phase: the blocking group received light stimulus until the light elicited a strong CR (control group received no stimulus), second phase: pair light with tone, test phase: tone presented by itself to extinction; Conclusion: the prior conditioning with the light blocked the later conditioning of the tone stimulus - blocking effect

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Rules of the Rescorla-Wagner Model

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1 - if the strength of the actual CS is greater than the strength of the subject's expectation, all CSs that were paired with the US will receive excitatory conditioning; 2 - if the strength of the actual US is less than the subject's expectation, all the CSs that were paired with the US will receive inhibitory conditioning; 3 - if the strength of the actual US is equal to the strength of the subject's expectation, there will be no conditioning; 4 - the larger the discerpancy between the strength of the expectation and the strength of the US, the greater will be the conditioning (either excitatory or inhibitory) that occurs; 5 - more salient (noticeable) CSs will condition faster than less salient CSs; 6 - if two or more CSs are presented together, the subject's expectation will be equal to their total strength (with excitatory and inhibitory stimuli tending to cancel each other out)

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Mackintosh's Theory of Attention

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a theory that assumes that the salience of a CS changes with experience; compare to Kamin's blocking effect experiment

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US Devaluation

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a method of experiments in which the ability of the US to evoke a UR is diminished in one way or another after the CS has been conditioned

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Contiguity Principle in Taste-Aversion Learning

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aversion to the CS is much greater in experimental groups (in which a specific taste is later followed by poison) than in control groups (which are exposed only to the poison); a taste aversion is specific to the CS, not a general avoidance of all foods or all liquids

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Contraprepared Associations

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a difficulty forming an association between stimuli, or between stimuli and responses, after many pairings because of an innate propensity in a particular species

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Unprepared Associations

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an association between stimuli, or between stimuli and responses, that members of a particular species have no special predisposition for, but can be formed after a moderate number of pairings

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Analgesia

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a decreased sensitivity to pain

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Hyperalgesia

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an increased sensitivity to pain

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Positive

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a term that indicates a stimulus is presented if a behavior occurs

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Negative

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a term that indicates a stimulus is subtracted (removed or avoided entirely) if a behavior occurs

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Shock-Frequency Reduction Theory

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theory that animals can learn an avoidance response when neither an external CS nor the passage of time is a reliable signal for shock, and that to master this task, animals must be sensitive to the average shock frequencies when they respond and when they do not respond; another name for the one-factor theory of avoidance

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Suppression

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a decrease in behavior that does not depend on a contingency between the behavior and the aversive event

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Factors Influencing the Effectiveness of Punishment

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manner of introduction, immediacy of punishment, schedule of punishment, motivation to respond, availability of alternative behaviors, and punishment as a discriminative stimulus

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Disadvantages of Using Punishment

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it can elicit several emotional effects, such as fear and anger, that are generally disruptive of learning and performance; can lead to a suppression of all behaviors, not only the behavior being punished; in real-world situations the use of punishment demands the continual monitoring of the individual's behavior; individuals may try to circumvent the rules or escape from the situation entirely; can lead to aggression against either the punisher or whomever happens to be around

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Behavior Decelerator

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any procedure that leads to a slowing, reduction, or elimination of an unwanted behavior

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Response Cost

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a behavior reduction procedure in which the individual is penalized by the loss of reinforcers if an undesired behavior occurs

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Learning

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relatively permanent change in an organism's potential for responding that results from experience or prior practice and is necessary because without it we would not be able to change with the world and would suffer from lack of emotional stability - can lead to chemical changes, the growth of new synapses or the growth of new neurons (based on the type of learning)

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Case Studies

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in depth study of an individual or specific groups of individuals that share common features

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Descriptive Studies

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type of study that allow investigators to examine subjective attitudes, beliefs and opinions for small population or large group of individuals; Ex: questionnaires, surveys/polls, interviews

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Archival Studies

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type of study in which data is collected from permanent, yet ongoing records of society - hypotheses are easily tested by examining relationships between two or more variables of interest

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Observational Studies

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field studies where the experimenter is a passive observer of behavior; Ex: human interactions, successful behaviors of couples, ADHD/SIB, play behavior/aggression, field studies; advantages: provides an objective, non-biased and accurate description of naturally occurring behavior

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Continuous Recording

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type of recording used in observational studies in which all instances of a behavior are captured - must be videotaped

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Duration Recording

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type of recording used in observational studies in which only the length of time a behavior is exhibited is captured

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Frequency Recording

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type of recording used in observational studies in which how often a behavior is observed is captured

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Interval Recording

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type of recording used in observational studies in which how often a behavior is observed in a given time interval is captured

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Experimental Studies

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a type of study in which the investigator manipulates the variables of interest - must be conducted in a controlled environment

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Independent Variable

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that which the investigator is manipulating (the effects of...)

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Dependent Variable

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the change in behavior or responses produced by the independent variable (on...)

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Skill Learning

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learning that involves acquiring some skill through repetition; responses necessary to carry out new skills improve only with repeated practice - ensures that all movements required for the responses become associated and integrated together

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Topography

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entire sequence of responses that forms a type of behavior

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Classical Conditioning

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change in the intensity in which involuntary reflexes are emitted

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Operant Conditioning

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change in the intensity in which voluntary reflexes are emitted

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Latency

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measure of the strength in which associations are formed (long = weak associations)

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Rehabilitation

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re-training or re-establishing a lost motor program

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Plato

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a nativist/rationalist who believed that learning was recollecting what the soul already possessed knowledge of; knowledge is derived from reasoning, thought, deep thought and reflection, which are independent from sensory experiences (cannot be trusted); every object experienced in the physical world, has a corresponding idea or form in the mind, which are the origin of knowledge about the object; mental activities such as reasoning, introspection, deep thought, and reflection allow the mind's eye to provide access to the soul; Quote: "Reasoning clears away ignorance and confusion and opens the door to discovering truths about our world

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Forms

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(Plato) perfect representations of all objects/living things that are maintained as innate ideas

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Innate Ideas

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(Plato) ideal structural concepts

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Soul

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(Plato) something that contains all pure and complete knowledge

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Descartes

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a nativist/rationalist who believed that knowledge and truths are innate but are only discovered by reasoning

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Reasoning

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(Descartes) the process of doubting everything until there is sufficient evidence to prove it true - helped him to reach the truth of his own existence

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Cogito Ergo Sum

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(Descartes) I think, therefore, I am - how he figured out the truth of his own existence

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Cartesian Dualism

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(Descartes) the mind is separate from the body; the mind is somewhat governed by the soul (of which the Pineal Gland is the source)

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Pineal Gland

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believed by Descartes to be the source of the soul; near the third ventricle; sits behind the thalamus; one of only two places in the brain where there is not an identical copy

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Involuntary Behavior

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(Descartes) reflexes - controlled by the reflex arc, which involves messages sent first from the sense organs to the brain and then from the brain to the muscles

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Voluntary Behavior

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(Descartes) initiated by the mind - thinking influences the pineal gland to carry out the movement of the thought - with messages send to the brain and then to the muscles

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Kant

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a "soft" nativist who tried to reconcile differences with empiricists; believed mental processes were prewired at birth to structure how new sensory experiences are processed in the mind; the brain is structured to encode new information by cause & effect and space & time - concepts are innate; learning involves experiencing sensory stimuli and the mind transforming stimuli in a coherent order for meaning; the mind is structured to assume that every experienced event has a "cause"; it is difficult for an organism to ignore or fail to search for the "cause" of any event; knowledge or the development of new associations involves discovering the "cause" related to all "effects"

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Aristotle

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an empiricist who believed that external observation of sensory information from the external world is the basis for obtaining all new knowledge - sensory information is an integral part of our experience; humans delight in their senses which indicates their natural desire to know; argued against nativist by saying that solitary confinement did not lead to wisdom because of the lack of interruptions (Plato), but leads to hallucinations and paranoia

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Hallucinations

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(Aristotle) the body creating its own sensory stimuli

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Contiguity

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(Aristotle) the more closely two items occur in space and time the more likely the thought of one is to lead to the thought of the other

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Similarity

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(Aristotle) the thought of one thing will lead to the thought of a similar thing

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Contrast

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(Aristotle) the thought of one thing will lead to the thought of the opposite

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John Locke

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a strong empiricist who believed that all ideas, knowledge and understanding is derived from sensory experience - the brain is a "tabula rasa" and experiences write upon the tablet - you cannot develop an idea of something that you have never experienced; the acquisition of knowledge begins with "ideas"

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Ideas of Sensations

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(John Locke) thought patterns arising from objects an organism experiences in the environment

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Ideas of Reflection

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(John Locke) processes involved in encoding perceptions, thoughts and ideas to create new knowledge or refine and update existing knowledge

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John Mills

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an empiricist who viewed experience as the source of knowledge - experience leads to sensations which creates ideas which create memories; your ability to think, feel, know, act or retain these experiences can be reduced to "synchrous" patterns of neural activity in specific clusters of neurons in the brain

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Experience

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(John Mills) a succession of sensations and ideas that just pass through our lives - that are our lives - and synchronous sensations and ideas

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Reception

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stimulus molecules from the environment attach to sensory adaptors - physical stimuli attaching to sensory receptors (auditory cells with cilia, chemical cells, free nerve endings and Meissner's corpuscles)

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Receptors

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vision - rods and cones; auditory - hair cells with cilia; somatosensory - free nerve endings and meissner's corpuscles; olfaction - olfactory cells; gustatory cells

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Transduction (Conversion)

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receptors convert the physical energy of a stimulus from the environment into a chemical reaction (Action Potentials)

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Coding (Segregation)

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the spatial and temporal pattern of nerve activity that represents the stimulus in a meaningful way (where it occurs, the order that it occurs in)

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Conscious Perception

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the point at which a person becomes aware of the information from particular stimulus modalities

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Paryocellular Cells

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small cells located in layers 3-6 (Ventral Stream) of the Lateral Geniculate Nucleus that receives visual information from the optic nerve about color, fine pattern detail, and form of objects; involved in coding

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Magnocellular Cells

answer

very large cells located in layers 1-2 (Dorsal Stream) of the Lateral Geniculate Nucleus that receives visual information about movement, orientation, depth, and position from the optic nerve - deals with black and white; involved in coding

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Optic Radiation

answer

the nerve pathway that carries information from the thalamus to the primary visual cortex in the back of the brain

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Secondary Visual Cortex

answer

contains the Prestriate Cortex and the Inferotemporal Cortex

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Prestriate Cortex

answer

part of the secondary visual cortex located directly above or in front of the primary visual cortex that allows you to direct action to objects in your environment; also called the Dorsal Stream or Where or How Pathway

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Inferotemporal Cortex

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part of the secondary visual cortex located underneath the temporal lobe which is responsible for assigning labels to represent objects; also called the Ventral Stream or What Pathway

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Posterior Parietal Cortex

answer

where meaning is assigned to everything we encounter in the environment; receives information from every sensory system; also called the association cortex

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Retinitis Pigmentosa

answer

an inherited disease that occurs because of a genetic defect on Chromosome 3 (which contains the gene for Rhodopsin) which causes complete blindness because the rods and cones begin to die and there is no rhodopsin to bleach for transduction; can possibly be cured by inserting stem cells into the retina

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Akinetopsia

answer

damage to the Lateral Geniculate Nucleus or Prestriate Cortex which leads to motion blindness - damage to the magnocellular cells makes it impossible to detect movement, so everything is viewed as choppy or jumping from one spot to another

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Apperceptive Agnosia

answer

damage to the Inferotemporal Cortex which causes an inability to link the parts of an object together to represent the whole

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Associative Agnosia

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damage to the Inferotemporal Cortex which eliminates the ability to associate names or labels with objects

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Acquisition Phase

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the period in which the animal is acquiring a new skill

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Intervening Variables

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theoretical concepts that cannot be observed directly

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Syntax

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the rules and definitions that state how the independent and dependent variables are to be measured and that specify the relationships among independent variables, intervening variables, and dependent variables

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Criteria for Judging Scientific Theories

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testability (falsifiability), simplicity, generality, fruitfulness, and agreement with the data

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Falsifiability

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a test for theories in which the predictions in a theory can be tested against the facts and can be proven wrong

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Generality

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a test for theories in which the theories deal with more phenomena and with a greater range of observations

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Fruitfulness

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a test for theories in which the theory is able to stimulate further research and further thinking about a particular topic - even if proven false it has served a useful function in creating new studies

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Case History Method

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a research technique that relies on the detailed analysis of one individual or on a small number of individuals

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Biased Sample

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in psychological research, a sample of subjects who do not accurately reflect the characteristics of the whole population

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Sampling Error

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in scientific research, an error in measurement caused by random or uncontrolled variations in the quantity being measured

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Confounding Variable

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a variable that is not of interest to the research but might nevertheless affect the results of an experiment, thereby making the results difficult or impossible to interpret

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Placebo Effect

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the finding that when people know they are participating in an experiment, their behaviors may change or improve, even if they are in a control group and receive no special treatment

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Experimental Group

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in experimental research, a group of subjects that receives special training or treatment and whose performance is usually compared to that of a control group

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Control Group

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in experimental research, a group of subjects that receives no special training or treatment and whose performance is compared to that of the experimental group

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Double-Blind Procedure

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in psychological research, a procedure in which neither the subject nor the researcher who interacts with the subject knows whether that subject is in the control group or the experimental group

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Inferential Statistics

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assist the researcher in drawing inferences or theoretical conclusions about empirical results

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Statistically Significant

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unlikely the result occurred by chance - in psychology, if the probably that it occurred by chance is less than .05

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Behaviorism

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an approach to psychology and the field of learning that emphasizes the study of external events (observable stimuli and response) and avoids speculation about processes inside the organism

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Cognitive Psychology

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an approach to psychology which, unlike behaviorism, makes use of theories about processes that take place inside the head (memory, attention, rehearsal, etc.) that cannot be observed directly

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Introspection

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a research method that involves reflecting on, reporting, and analyzing one's own mental processes - requires considerable practice to master this skill and can be interpreted differently by different psychologists

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Associationists

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philosophers who developed early theories about how people learn to associate separate theories or ideas as a result of their experiences

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Nativism

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the position that some ideas are innate and do not depend on an individual's past experience

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Complex Idea

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a term used by James Mill, a British Associationist, to describe what happens when two or more simple ideas are combined

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Duplex Ideas

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a term used by James Mill, a British Associationist, to describe what happens when complex ideas are combined

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Thomas Brown

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an associationist who proposed nine secondary principles of association to supplement Aristotle's list

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Secondary Principles of Association

answer

(Thomas Brown) the following effect the strength of the association: length of time two sensations coexist, the liveliness or vividness of the sensations (more emotional = better), sensations paired frequently, sensations paired recently, both sensations are free from strong associations with other sensations, constitutional differences among different individuals, person's current emotional state, the momentary state of the body (healthy, ill, intoxicated), and a person's prior habits

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Hermann Ebbinghaus

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a psychologist who did an experiment to test the principles of the Associationists by memorizing a list of nonsense syllables and testing his own savings; he found that list length, repetition beyond learning (overlearning), the length of the intervals between study and test periods, the separation from the original order, and the original order are all important factors in determining how well an original list is learned

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Nonsense Syllable

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(Hermann Ebbinghaus) a meaningless syllable consisting of two consonants separated by a vowel

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Savings

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(Hermann Ebbinghaus) a measure of the strength of memory, which showed how much less time was required to relearn a previously learned list of nonsense syllables

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Overlearning

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(Hermann Ebbinghaus) continuing to practice a response after performance is apparently perfect, which often results in stronger or more accurate performance in a delayed test

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Forgetting Curve

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(Hermann Ebbinghaus) a graph showing how performance on a memory task declines with the passage of time since learning

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Role of Contiguity

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(Hermann Ebbinghaus) when trying to memorize a rearranged original list, as the number of skipped syllables increases in the rearranged lists, the amount of savings will diminish - match Aristotle's concept of contiguity

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Backward Associations

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(Hermann Ebbinghaus) when trying to memorize a list in reverse from the original memorization, there will be less savings than in the original memorization - poses a limitation on the contiguity principle because it shows that order matters in addition to the closeness of the pairs

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Cell Body

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the part of a neuron that contains the nucleus, which regulates the basic metabolic functions of the cell

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Dendrites

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a branch-like structure on the receptive side of a neuron that is sensitive to transmitters released by the axon terminals of other neurons

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Axons

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a long, branch-like part of a neuron that transmits electrical pulses, or action potentials, when the neuron is stimulated

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Transmitters

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a chemical released into the synapse by the axon terminals of a neuron, to which cell bodies and dendrites of other neurons are sensitive

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Synapse

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a small gap between the axon terminal of one neuron and the dendrite of another neuron into which transmitters are released

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Excitatory Synapse

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a synapse in which the release of transmitter makes the postsynaptic neuron more likely to fire

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Inhibitory Synapse

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a synapse in which the release of transmitter makes the postsynaptic neuron less likely to fire

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Presynaptic Neuron

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a neuron that releases its neurotransmitters into the synapse

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Receptors

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a specialized neuron that responds to sensory stimulation, either from the traditional "five senses" or from internal bodily sensations such as muscle tension and balance

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Simple Cell

answer

(James Mill) a type of neuron in the visual cortex, discovered by Hubel and Wiesel, which fires most rapidly when a line is presented at a specific angle in a specific part of the visual field

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James Mill

answer

a British associationist who created a theory of complex ideas based on a hierarchy: simple ideas, complex idea, and duplex ideas; believed that experience is at the root of all simple and complex ideas

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Feature Detectors

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(Hubel and Wiesel) neurons in the brain that each respond to a different visual stimuli

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Visual Cortex

answer

an area of the cerebral cortex, located in the back of the head, just beneath the skull, which processes visual information

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Single Neuron Doctrine of Perception

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the theory that there are individual neurons in the brain that respond to specific, complex stimuli in the individual's environment

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Long-Term Potentiation

answer

an increase in the strengths of connections between neurons caused by electrical stimulation, which can last for weeks or months (a chemical change of the brain - demonstrated in brain areas that are implicated in the storage of long-term memories)

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Arborization

answer

the branching of the dendrites of neurons, a process that occurs especially rapidly before birth and during the first year of a child's life

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Neurogenesis

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the growth of new neurons

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Habituation

answer

a decrease in the strength of a reflexive response after repeated presentation of the stimulus that elicits the response - stimulus specific, original response recovers after time - with small savings of habituation that help with quick relearning, strongest with weak stimuli

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Orienting Response

answer

an innate reaction to a sudden or unexpected stimulus in which an animals stops its current activity to look at or listen to the novel stimulus

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Generalization

answer

the transfer of a learned response from one stimulus to another, similar stimulus

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Simple Systems Approach

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in physiological research, the strategy of studying primitive creatures, which have smaller and less complex nervous systems

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Positron Emission Tomography (PET)

answer

a brain imaging technique that can show which parts of a person's brain are currently most active

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Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI)

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a brain imaging technique that can show, in real time, which parts of a person's brain are currently most active

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Plasticity

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the nervous system's ability to change as a result of experience or stimulation

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Opponent-Process Theory

answer

Solomon and Corbit's theory that states that many emotional responses include an initial emotional reaction followed by an afterreaction of the opposite emotion

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A-Process

answer

in the opponent-process theory, an initial fast-acting emotional response to a stimulus, which is later followed by the b-process, leading to the opposite emotion - never changes

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B-Process

answer

in the opponent-process theory, an emotional response that is the opposite of the a-process; supposedly activated only in response to the activity of the a-process, and is more sluggish both to rise and decay - strengthened with use and weakened with disuse

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Tolerance

answer

a decrease in the effects of a drug that is observed after repeated use of the drug

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Hubel and Wiesel

answer

two psychologists who studied vision, discovered the feature detector neurons and found by studying kittens that experience keeps the feature detectors functioning well, whereas deprivation of visual stimuli causes the feature detectors to deteriorate and become nonfunctional, also, that the response characteristics of feature detectors can be modified depending on the type of visual stimulation a kitten receives

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Idea Density

answer

how many concepts/associations are present per every ten words of writing - based on the question do you create a representation in someone else's mind in every ten words - studied by Dr. Snowdon in nuns

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Declarative Memory

answer

information that you are consciously aware of

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Semantic Association

answer

connections made between the meanings and functions and the labels used to identify objects

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Episodic Memory

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autobiographical memory - memory for personal episodes of your life

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Self-Enhancement Bias

answer

changing the way you respond to make you look good

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Procedural Learning

answer

anything that you do that improves with practice, such as studying, and is unconscious - the first time that this task is performed it is declarative

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Pre-Motor Cortex

answer

where motor programs are processed

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Process of Learning

answer

in order to learn a person must experience new stimuli, understand the relationships between different stimuli, and form associations based upon the relationships of new stimuli and attach new meaning to stimuli

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Product of Learning

answer

acquiring new knowledge or responses to previously insignificant stimuli or modify old responses

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Five Indices of Learning

answer

form or topography improves, number of errors or incorrect responses decrease, intensity or forcefulness changes, latency decreases, and frequency changes

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Rosenzweig

answer

a psychologist who studied the effects of an enriching environment on rats - discovered that learning experiences can lead to the growth of new synaptic connections between neurons (especially cerebral cortex) - believed by many to underlie the development of long-term memories

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Karl Lashley

answer

a psychologist who studied the hypothesis that physical or chemical changes caused by learning occur in many neurons in many different brain areas by removing different sections of different rats brains after having them learn a maze - small area, no matter where, did not change memory

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Walter Penfield

answer

a surgeon who electrically stimulated areas of the cerebral cortex of human patients during brain surgery - certain areas led to vivid sensations - specific concepts are stored in specific areas of the brain and those concepts belonging to a single category are stored close together

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Below-Zero Habituation

answer

the concept of overlearning for habituation, where further learning can occur at a time when there is no longer any change in observable behavior

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Eric Kandel

answer

studied the behavior and nervous system of Aplysia - studied habituation in the gill-withdrawal reflex (when the siphon is poked the gill contracts into the mantle), which lasts completely for an hour and partially for 24 hours - showed that during habituation a decrease in excitatory conduction always occurred at the synapses - change in the number of neurotransmitters released by the presynaptic neuron

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Michael Davis

answer

conducted research on a rat's startle response to a sudden loud noise - able to trace the entire circuit of the startle reaction through the nervous system, the neurons that undergo change during habituation are on the sensory side and are within the reflex circuit

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Routtenberg & Lindy

answer

conducted a study in which a lever would bring electrical brain stimulation - rats chose this over food and died of starvation

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James Olds & Peter Milner

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conducted a study in which a lever would bring electrical brain stimulation - rats chose this until they collapsed from exhaustion

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Improvement of Form or Topography

answer

an indicator of learning that shows that responses necessary to carry out new skills improve only with repeated practice (procedural learning)

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Caudate-Putamen

answer

two areas in the brain that monitor the outcome of the action generated by the motor cortex and the formation stimulus-response bonds between successful outcomes before sending this information to the Pre-Motor Cortex

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Pre-Motor Cortex

answer

the location of the development of automated motor programs for stimulus response bonds

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Motor Cortex

answer

receives information about the sensory stimuli in the environment from the thalamus and generates motor movements in response to these stimuli; the location of motor program development of Action-Outcome Relationships and Stimulus-Response Bonds

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Decrease in the Number of Errors

answer

an indicator of learning that implies that stimulus-response associations are not only learned, but are firmly established and encoded into memory; helpful in determining: the number of training sessions necessary to learn a task, the time course that information can be maintained in memory, and the chemical systems that can be manipulated to improve memory

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Change in Intensity or Forcefulness

answer

an indicator of learning used in classical and operant conditioning

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Kim and Fanselow

answer

two scientists who paired the conditioned stimulus of a tone with the unconditioned stimulus of a shock to create the conditioned response of fear for the tone alone; returning the rat to the context without its hippocampus proved that the hippocampus is involved in encoding (1 day), but not long term storage (28 days) and a second test showed that the hippocampus encodes for memory of events

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Decrease in Latency

answer

an indicator of learning in which the amount of time it takes to respond should decrease because there is a direct indication that associations have been formed because presentation of one stimulus will automatically lead to the thought and recall of related information; long latencies imply a weak association

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Change in Rate or Frequency

answer

an indicator of learning that says learning will produce either an increase or decrease in this measure; used in operant conditioning to see which conditions lead to the most ideal level of responding in any organism

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Primary Visual Cortex

answer

responsible for conscious perception because activation of this area creates conscious awareness about information in the environment

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Optic Nerve

answer

the axons of the ganglion cells, which take visual information to the brain

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Ganglion Cells

answer

the cells connected to the bipolar cell whose axons create the optic nerve

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Bipolar Cells

answer

the cells directly next to the rods and cones; disinhibited in the presence of light because the sodium cells are closed and glutamate is not released; inhibited by the release of glutamate in the dark

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Hyperpolarization

answer

passing the threshold of electrical charge after an Action Potential - happens to the rods and cones and causes them to stop firing

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Transducin

answer

a neurotransmitter which is released because of the presence of retinal and opsin - recruits enzymes to break down Cyclic GMP and close the Na+ channels

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Retinal/Opsin

answer

the broken down parts of the photopigment rhodopsin - the result of light and bleaching

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Rhodopsin

answer

a photopigment located in the disks that is bleached by light - light breaks it down into retinal and opsin

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Disks

answer

small objects located on the rods and cones that contain millions of photopigments

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Cyclic GMP

answer

the gate keeper that opens up the sodium channels in the dark allowing positively charged Na+ ions to enter the cell and create an action potential - makes the rods and cones constantly active allowing them to release neurotransmitters to make the neighboring bipolar cells active; broken down by Transducin enzymes in the presence of light

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Mentalism

answer

all actions, thoughts, hopes, expectations, etc. are caused by Mental Processes

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Criticism of Mentalism

answer

consequences will actually influence your behavior, it is the anticipation of what will happen in the environment; cannot observe mind states

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Burrhus F. Skinner's Criticism of Mentalism

answer

the consequences of actions selectively strengthen responses that precede their delivery

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Edward Thorndike

answer

believed that reinforcers select responses and connect the responses to stimuli; first psychologist to study how the consequences of an action influence learning and voluntary behavior - used mazes with baby chickens and puzzle boxes with stray cats captured from alleys

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Purpose of Puzzle Boxes

answer

addressed whether animals posses insight or intelligence by examining how animals learn the correct response that leads to escape from confinement and the positive consequence of a food reinforcement - "K" Puzzle box creates a more linear graph than "A" puzzle box

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Stamping Out

answer

eliminate things that do not work - part of trials 2-9 in Thorndike's puzzle box experiments (responses not associated with escape); part of trial and error learning

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Stamping In

answer

incorporate the responses that lead to the desirable consequences - part of trials 10-23 in Thorndike's puzzle box experiments (responses that lead to food or escape); part of trial and error learning

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Thorndike's Interpretation of the Puzzle Box Experiments

answer

the purpose of the consequences that follow a correct response is to strengthen associations between the stimuli in the box and the responses instrumental in acting on stimuli that lead to escape and food

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Law of Effect

answer

(Thorndike) responses that lead to satisfaction will be strengthened and more firmly connected to a given event so that when the event recurs, the response will be more likely to occur; responses preceding discomfort will have it's connections weakened with the event so that they are less likely to be displayed - formal way of describing the concepts of stamping in and stamping out

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Edwin Guthrie's Viewpoint on Learning

answer

believed all behavior cannot be explained by it's consequences since several behaviors are not goal directed or purposeful; association by contiguity is the basis for most learning (stimulus-response) - we do what we did last time we were in that situation

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Edwin Guthrie's Findings

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after learning, an almost identical response was used to displace the pole on each trial

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Edwin Guthrie's Conclusion

answer

stimuli acting at the time of a response tend to evoke a response; the last response performed equals the last response conditioned to a stimulus

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Response Preservation

answer

stimulus response end the sequence of responses leading up to it and leave the behavior as the last thing that was done in that stimulus situation - no new associations; concept developed by Guthrie after his experiment with the transparent puzzle box

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Superstitious Behavior

answer

a behavior that occurs because, by accident or coincidence, it has previously been followed by a reinforcer

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Reinforcer

answer

a stimulus that strengthens behavior if it is delivered after the behavior

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Positive Reinforcement

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a behavior strengthening procedure in which the occurrence of a behavior is followed by a desired stimulus, or reinforcer

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Stop-Action Principle

answer

a principle of reinforcement that states that the precise movements being performed at the moment of reinforcer delivery will be strengthened and be more likely to occur in the future; developed by R. Brown and Herrnstein (1975); Problem: conclusions from experiment by Staddon and Simmelhag

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Method of the Superstition Experiment

answer

Skinner's classic experiment in which food was delivered to pigeons every 15 seconds no matter what they were doing, and most pigeons developed distinctive behaviors that they performed repeatedly between food presentations

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Interim Behaviors

answer

a behavior pattern that occurs in the early parts of each interval when food or some other primary reinforcer is delivered at regular intervals

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Terminal Behaviors

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a behavior pattern that occurs near the end of each interval when food or some other primary reinforcer is delivered at regular intervals

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Adjunctive Behaviors

answer

stereotyped behaviors that arise when food or some other reinforcer is delivered at regular intervals - terminal or interim behaviors

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Primary Reinforcer

answer

a stimulus that naturally strengthens any response it follows

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Shaping

answer

a procedure for teaching a new behavior in which closer and closer approximations to the desired behavior are reinforced; involves selective reinforcement of components of target behaviors or gradual withholding of reinforcement for responses that were once reinforced (extinction)

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Percentile Schedules of Reinforcement

answer

a reinforcement schedule in which a given response is reinforced if it is better than a certain percentage of the last several responses the learner has made

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Free Operant Procedures

answer

a procedure developed by Skinner for use in operant conditioning; an animal is free to operate for the entire session of learning; ex: bar pressing; learning is measured by response rate

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Discriminative Stimulus

answer

in operant conditioning, a stimulus that indicates whether or not responding will lead to reinforcement

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Three-Term Contingency

answer

a contingency involving a discriminative stimulus, a response, and a reinforcer or punisher - states that in the presence of a specific discriminative stimulus, a specific response will lead to specific consequences; discovered by B.F. Skinner

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Stimulus Control

answer

the general topic of how behaviors can be controlled by the stimuli that precede them

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Resurgence

answer

the reappearance of a previously reinforced response that occurs when a more recently reinforced response is extinguished

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Generalized Reinforcers

answer

a conditioned reinforcer that has been associated with a large number of different primary reinforcers

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Response Chain

answer

a sequence of learned behaviors that must occur in a specific order, with a primary reinforcer delivered only after the final response - each stimulus in the middle is assumed to serve as a conditioned reinforcer for the previous response and a discriminative stimulus for the next response

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Backward Chaining

answer

a strategy, used for teaching response chains, in which the teacher starts iwth the last response in the chain and works backward

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Forward Chaining

answer

a strategy used to teach a response chain in which the teacher starts by reinforcing the first response of the chain, then gradually adds the second response, the third response, and so on

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Reinforcement Schedules

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a rule that states what conditions a reinforcer will be delivered

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Continuous Reinforcement

answer

a reinforcement schedule that delivers a reinforcer after every occurrence of a specific response

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Cumulative Recorder

answer

a simple mechanical device that records responses in a way that plots time on the horizontal axis and cumulative responses on the vertical axis - allows the observer to see at a glance the moment-to-moment patterns of a subject's behavior

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Fixed-Ratio Schedule

answer

a reinforcement schedule that delivers a reinforcer after a fixed number of responses - has a stair step or stop and go graph appearance

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Post-Reinforcement Pause

answer

a pause in responding that usually occurs after each reinforcer in fixed-ratio schedules

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Ratio Strain

answer

a general weakening of responding that is found when a fixed-ratio schedule requires a very large number of responses

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Variable-Ratio Schedule

answer

a reinforcement schedule that delivers a reinforcer after a variable and unpredictable number of responses; causes a steady or non-stop pattern of responding that is greater than any other schedule because the animal cannot predict when the next reinforcer will come

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Fixed-Interval Schedule

answer

a reinforcement schedule in which the first response after a fixed amount of time has elapsed is reinforced; graph appears scalloped due to "time out period"

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Variable-Interval Schedules

answer

a reinforcement schedule in which reinforcers become available after variable and unpredictable time intervals - once a reinforcer becomes available, a singe response is required to collect it; causes a non-step graph

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Resistance to Extinction

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the degree to which a response continues when it is no longer reinforced

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Partial Reinforcement Effect

answer

the finding that responses are more rapidly extinguished after continuous reinforcement than after a schedule of intermittent reinforcement

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Humphrey's Paradox

answer

another name for the partial reinforcement effect, or the seemingly paradoxical finding that a response that is only intermittently reinforced is more resistant to extinction than a response that is reinforced every time it occurs

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Discrimination Hypothesis

answer

an explanation of the partial reinforcement effect, which states that the rate of decrease in responding depends on how quickly the subject can discriminate the change from reinforcement to distinction

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Generalization Decrement Hypothesis

answer

an explanation of the partial reinforcement effect, which states that responding during extinction will be rapid if the stimuli present during extinction are different from those that occurred during reinforcement, but slow if the stimuli are similar to those that occurred during reinforcement

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Concurrent Schedule

answer

a situation in which two or more reinforcement schedules are available at the same time, each requiring its own responses and delivering its own reinforcers

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Chained Schedule

answer

a set of two or more reinforcement schedules that must be completed in a specific sequence before the reinforcer is delivered - each schedule is signaled by a different stimulus

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Behavioral Momentum

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an operant behavior's resistance to change when the reinforcement conditions change

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Contingency-Shaped Behavior

answer

behavior is controlled by the schedule of reinforcement or punishment (as opposed to rule-governed behavior, which is controlled by a verbal or mental rule about how to behave)

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Rule-Governed Behavior

answer

behavior that is controlled by a verbal or mental rule about how to behave (as opposed to contingency-shaped behavior, which is controlled by the schedule of reinforcement or punishment)

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Multiple Schedule

answer

a procedure in which two or more reinforcement schedules are presented one at a time in an alternating pattern, and each schedule is signaled by a different discriminative stimulus; Experiment to Support Remaining Responses Hypothesis: blue light says FR 100 = short pause, red light says FR 10 = long pause - proves not fatigue

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Molecular Theory

answer

a theory of behavior that focuses on the moment-by-moment relationships between behaviors and their consequences

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Molar Theory

answer

a theory of behavior that focuses on the long-term relationships between behaviors and their consequences

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Interresponse Time Reinforcement Theory

answer

the theory that responding is faster on variable-ratio schedules than on variable-interval schedules because long IRT's (long pauses between responses) are more frequently reinforced on variable-interval schedules

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Response-Reinforcer Correlation Theory

answer

the theory that responding is faster on variable-ratio schedules than on variable-interval schedules, because faster responding leads to more reinforcers on variable-ratio schedules but not on variable-interval schedules

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Prompt

answer

in behavior modification, a stimulus that makes a desires response very likely to occur, and is gradually removed (faded out) as training proceeds

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Fading

answer

a behavior modification procedure in which a prompt for a desired behavior is gradually withdrawn, thereby teaching the learner to produce the behavior without a prompt

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Token Economy

answer

a behavior modification system, often used with groups of people, in which each person can earn tokens by performing specific behaviors and can later exchange these tokens for a variety of primary reinforcers

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Organizational Behavior Management

answer

a field of applied behavior analysis that uses the principles of behavioral psychology to improve human performance in the workplace

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Contingency Contract

answer

a written agreement used in behavior therapy that lists the duties (behaviors) required of each party and the privileges (reinforcers) that will result if the duties are performed

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Cognitive Map

answer

according to Tolman, a mental map of its environment that an animal develops by exploring or observing its surroundings (as when a rat learns a maze)

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Latent Learning

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Tolman's term for the hidden learning that occurs on trials when no reinforcer is delivered, but can only be seen in the subject's behavior once trials with reinforcement begin

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Electrical Stimulation of the Brain

answer

a mild, pulsating electrical current which, when delivered to certain parts of the brain, acts as a powerful reinforcer

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Biofeedback

answer

a procedure that provides a person with amplified feedback about some bodily function to treat some medical problem

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Need-Reduction Theory

answer

a theory proposed by Hull that all primary reinforcers are stimuli that reduce some biological need, and all stimuli that reduce a biological need will act as reinforcers; Problem: limited theory because so many things serve as reinforcers that are unrelated to biological needs (smiles, grades);

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Drive-Reduction Theory

answer

a theory proposed by Hull and Miller that a reinforcer is any stimulus that fulfills a biological need and also reduces drives because it reduces tension and replenishes resources (states) and satisfies drives (shortcoming of need-reduction theory); Problems: Sheffield (1951), Everitt (1990), and so many things we do increase tension, but we continue (exercise, procrastination); Significance: something inside us is motivating us

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Trans-Situationality

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the theory that once a stimulus is determined to be a reinforcer in one situation, it will also serve as a reinforcer in other situations

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Premack's Principle

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the theory that more probable behaviors will act as reinforcers for less probable behaviors, and that less probable behaviors will act as punishers for more probable behaviors

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Reinforcement Relativity

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an idea promoted by Premack that there are no absolute categories of reinforcers and reinforceable responses, but that more probable behaviors can reinforce less probable behaviors

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Reciprocal Contingency

answer

a procedure that ensures that two behaviors occur in a fixed proportion by requiring the individuals to perform fixed amounts of the two behaviors in alternation; a way to test Premack's principle that less probable behaviors will punish more probable behaviors

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Response Deprivation Theory

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a theory of reinforcement which states that any contingency that deprives an animal of its preferred level of a behavior will cause that behavior to act as a reinforcer for less restricted behaviors

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Functional Analysis

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a method in which stimuli and/or reinforcers are systematically varaied so that a therapist can determine which are maintaining a patient's behavior

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Automatic Reinforcement

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reinforcement of a behavior derived from the sensory stimulation that occurs as a result of performing the behavior itself

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Behavioral Economics

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a field that uses principles from both behavioral psychology and economics to predict people's choices and behaviors

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Optimization Theory

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a theory of choice behavior that states that people tend to make decisions that maximize their satisfaction

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Elastic Demand

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in economics, demand for a product that exhibits large changes as the prince increases or decreases

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Inelastic Demand

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in economics, demand for a product that shows relatively little change as the price increases or decreases

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Hutt (1954)

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conducted an experiment with animals with 3 quantities of a liquid and 3 qualities - quality is more important because there is a greater response for a low quantity of a high quality product than there is of a higher quantity for a lower quality product; measured quality v. quantity

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Capaldi (1978)

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conducted an experiment with two groups of rats, one group was released and ran to get food, but the other group was confined for ten seconds before receiving food - contained groups asymptote is half of the other groups because they are associating running with containment - develop superstitious behavior; measured timing/delay (business community will try to reinforce response to their good product by rewarding waiting)

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Crespi (1942)

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conducted an experiment with four groups of rats: first 2 groups receive 10 pellets at the end of a track, second 2 groups receive 1 pellet at the end of a track, but change so first and third group switch - those who are used to getting 1 pellet, but start to get 10's asymptote surpasses those that have always received 10, whereas those who are used to getting 10, but start to get 1's low is lower than that of those who always received 1 - impact of previous history, but associate emotional reactions with the response - contrast in perception of the magnitude of the change; measuring running speed (shows that quality is more important than quality)

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Backward Causality

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something that happens afterwards is going back in time to influence something before

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Forward Anticipation

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selectively strengthen responses that precede their delivery because organisms develop an expectation that a given stimulus reinforcer will follow a given response - backs up Skinner (with Hutt, Capaldi, and Crespi experiments)

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Discrete Trial Procedures

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a type of procedure used in instrumental learning where organisms responses are pertained all in one trial - there is only one chance

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Instrumental Learning

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organisms responses were instrumental in bringing about a change in its environment - the only way to change your behavior is your responses; named by Thorndike; dependent variable is always latency; studied with a discrete trial procedure

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Operant Conditioning

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an organism is free to operate on the environment to bring about a change; measure learning by response rate; developed by B.F. Skinner; studied with a free operant procedure

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B.F. Skinner

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believed the main thing that influences your response rate is the schedule of reinforcement

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Fixed Rate

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identical rate after a given number of responses or the identical rate after a certain interval

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Variable Rate

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different rate regardless of the number of responses made or the amount of time that has passed

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Ratio Schedule

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deliver a reinforcer after a certain number of responses occur

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Interval Schedule

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deliver a reinforcer after a certain amount of time has passed

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Fatigue Hypothesis

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a hypothesis for the post-reinforcement pause that stated the animals were stopping after reinforcement because they were exhausted - NOT ACCURATE because there are uniform pauses and they should increase

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Satiation Hypothesis

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a hypothesis for the post-reinforcement pause that states the animals pause because they are full - NOT ACCURATE because the animal would not stop after the first reinforcement

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Remaining Responses Hypothesis

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a hypothesis for the post-reinforcement pause that states the animals pause because they are resting in preparation for the next ratio schedule - MOST LIKELY

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Time Out Period

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a break taken by an animal in a fixed interval schedule after the reinforcement is given and the animal can do whatever it wants because no amount of responding will bring a reinforcer - causes the graph to appear scalloped

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Scallop

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the appearance of the graph of a fixed interval schedule because the animal stops responding after receiving a reinforcement because no matter how much they respond they will never be reinforced but increase responding towards the end of the period because do not know if the interval is over

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Differential Reinforcement of Other Behaviors (DRO)

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a reinforcement schedule with the purpose of eliminating a behavior as an alternative to punishment; reinforce organism when they refrain from engaging in an undesirable behavior; examples: giving a sticker for a good day that doesn't have a behavior

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Steps of the Differential Reinforcement of Other Behaviors

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1 - identify the behavior to eliminate; 2 - determine how often you will check to see if the unwanted behavior is exhibited; 3 - assess if the behavior has occurred at any point leading up to the end of the interval (give reinforcement if refrains for a set period of time); 4 - provide a reinforcement (Ex: earned activity) if the behavior did not occur during the interval or (5) reset the interval if the unwanted behavior was displayed during the interval; 6 - as the problem behavior begins to decrease increase the interval

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Differential Reinforcement of Low Rates of Responding (DRL)

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a reinforcement schedule with the purpose of reducing a behavior by reinforcing an organism for withholding a response for a given time interval

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Steps of the Differential Reinforcement of Low Rates of Responding (DRL)

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1 - identify the behavior to reduce; 2 - determine the present rate or frequency of the behavior to reduce; 3 - specify the ideal rate or reduction in the behavior of interest; 4 - provide a reinforcement only when the target behavior has been withheld or not shown during the given interval; 5 - reset the interval if the unwanted behavior was displayed during the interval; 6 - as the problem behavior begins to decrease, increase the interval

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Differential Reinforcement of High Rates of Responding (DRH)

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a reinforcement schedule with the purpose of increasing or motivating a behavior by reinforcing an organism for making a given number of responses in a given period of time; ex: different stimuli tell the pigeon to peck a different number of times or not to peck

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Homeostatic Theories

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theories developed on the premise that in our life we will all experience change that disrupts our balance and we will increase responding in a certain thing if it will restore our equilibrium

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Sheffield (1951)

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an experiment that pointed out the weakness in the drive reduction theory because the male rats increased their rate of responding (running to the female rat) despite the fact they were never able to satisfy their needs and reduce tension - involved both instrumental and operant tasks; dependent variable: running speed

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Tension

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an unpleasant state described in the Drive Reduction Theory that is caused by a depletion or deprivation of drives and needs

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Everitt (1990)

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an experiment that pointed out the weakness in the drive reduction theory because the male rats increased their rate of responding (bar pressing) despite the fact they were never able to satisfy their needs and reduce tension - involved both instrumental and operant tasks; dependent variable: response rate

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Optimal Stimulation Theory

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a theory developed by Harlow that said a reinforcer is any stimuli that can return an organism to an "Intermediate Level of Arousal" that has been disrupted by external stimulation; all animals have an internal level that is optimal for them and linked to external stimulation; tested with Harlow's monkey experiment and Donald Hebb's experiment with students

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Harlow

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a scientist who asked the question: which is more important biological needs or sensory stimulation? - experiment with monkey babies and cloth or wire mothers; conducted a second experiment to test the optimal stimulation theory that placed monkeys behind doors where they must learn the response to open the door and see a train going around a track; tested optimal stimulation theory

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Donald Hebb

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a scientist who tested the Optimal Stimulation Theory by asking the question what are the effects of restricting auditory, visual, somatosensory, and olfactory sensations in a human - experiment where students were paid to stay in a room without sensory stimulation except for a six year old's voice; Conclusion: the brain has an inherent need for stimulation - part of why we do what we do is we are reinforced for things that stimulate our brain

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Dopamine Theory

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a theory developed by James Olds and Peter Milner which states that any stimulus or any event that causes the release of dopamine in the brain will be a reinforcer

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James Olds and Peter Milner

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two scientists that developed the Dopamine Theory by studying learning and memory in the Reticular Activating System; conducted an experiment where they trained rats and then stimulated RAS (believed should remember better), but missed and activated the Medial Forebrain Bundle; second experiment: connect animals to a bar press that brings stimulation and find that stimulation is a reinforcer because it convinces them to continue action

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Reticular Activating System

answer

a part of the brain that receives information from the Peripheral Nervous System and these changes cause the brain to send signals

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Medial Forebrain Bundle

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the bundle of axons connecting the Lateral Hypothalamus to the Ventral Tegmental Area; an area of the brain that causes the release of norepinehrine from the ventral tegmental area when stimulated

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Anderson, Ferland & Williams (1992)

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scientists who conducted an experiment with rats and 2 discriminative stimuli - a light signaled a FR10 for food or ESB and a tone signaled a DRL30 seconds; the electrical brain stimulation produced more responding than food because the rats learned that the reinforcer was alternating - releasing dopamine in the brain is more reinforcing than giving a primary reinforcer (stopped responding for food)

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Tegmentostriatel

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a collection of brain area that evaluates and registers the motivational properties of a reinforcer (the same stimulus can have different motivational properties depending on the context); connects the Lateral Hypothalamus to the Ventral Tegmental Area to the Nucleus Accumbens, Septum, and Prefrontal Cortex

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Nigrostriatal

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location in the brain for stimulus-response-reinforcer relationships; connects the substantia nigra to the putamen and caudate nucleus

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Prefrontal Cortex

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an area of the brain that is responsible for decision making and response planning to reinforcer related stimuli (only thing it does is force you to plan on how to get that stimuli)

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Nucleus Accumbens

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an area of the brain that is responsible for hedonic sensations and emotional arousal; releases dopamine - causes (perception of) pleasure

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Septum

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an area of the brain that is responsible for hedonic sensations; releases dopamine; has a large number of opiod receptors

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Ventral Tegmental Area

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an area of the brain that releases Norepinephrine

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Lateral Hypothalamus

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an area of the brain that detects reinforcement related to stimuli; sends axons to ventral tegmental areas

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Norepinephrine

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a hormone released from Ventral Tegmental Area due to activation of the medial forebrain bundle; causes the release of dopamine in the Nucleus Accumbens, Septum, and Prefrontal Cortex

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Substantia Nigra

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a part of the nigrostriatal system in the brain; located above the ventral area; the source of dopamine to initiate activity in the striatum; sends axons to Caudate Nucleus

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Caudate Nucleus

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a part of the nigrostriatal system in the brain; responsible for the memory of stimulus-response-reinforcer associations; connected to the Substantia Nigra

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Putamen

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a part of the nigrostriatal system in the brain; responsible for the motor programs from caudate sent to the cortex

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Premack's Principle of Reinforcer Relativity

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the role that any behavior plays in serving as a reinforcement upon its relative position on the probability scale; behavior of lever pressing happens because of the opportunity to engage in the behavior of eating (lever pressing = reinforceable behavior, eating = reinforcing behavior); Problems: assumes that only these behaviors serve as reinforcers

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Grandmother's Rule

answer

can engage in something you enjoy after you do something else

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Differences in Contingencies between Skinner and Premack

answer

Skinner believed the response lead to the reinforcement because reinforcers developed expectations which caused the response to increase (lever pressing = reinforceable behavior, food = reinforcing stimulus); Premack believed the behavior of lever pressing happens because of the opportunity to engage in the behavior of eating (lever pressing = reinforceable behavior, eating = reinforcing behavior)

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Premack

answer

a scientist who conducted an experiment to test his principle of reinforcement relativity by taking a baseline measure of behavior for lever pressing, door opening, and plunger pulling - make predictions based on probabilities about which behavior is the reinforceable behavior (plunger pulling because low) and which behavior is the reinforcing behavior (lever pulling because high), then lock one which causes the increase of behavior of something lower on the probability behavior

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Response Deprivation Theory

answer

a theory developed by Timberlake and Allison that says any behavior serves as a reinforcer as long as you have been reinforced

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Staddon and Simmelhag (1971)

answer

two scientists who replicated the superstition experiment - discovered the concept of interim behaviors (which are subject to an innate predisposition) and terminal behaviors (which frequently occur near the time of food delivery); Conclusion: it is not accidental reinforcement that causes interim behaviors to increase in frequency - problem with stop-action principle

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Contingency

answer

a rule that states that some event, B, will occur if and only if another event, A, occurs; Ex: the unconditioned stimulus will occur if and only if the conditioned stimulus occurs

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Edward Thorndike's Opinion on Consequences

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believed the the consequences of actions served to strengthen the bonds or associations between stimuli and responses

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Purpose of the "K" Puzzle Box

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to test if cats will learn a more complicated response to escape and retrieve food (pull ring, depress pedal, and turn latch)

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Edwin Guthrie's Opinion on Consequences

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the consequences of actions had a limited role in learning, but may serve to preserve or protect Stimulus-Response bonds that are forming - from interference

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Davidson (1971)

answer

rats placed in Skinner box on an FR10 schedule and then on 8 days of free feeding - when returned to the box with the choice between free feeding and lever pressing, chooses the FR 10 lever pressing; evidence for Guthrie's view on repeat what we last did (Contrafreeloading Effect)

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Kimble (1951)

answer

feed a rat wet mash for 15-20 daily in feeding chamber until satiated and then remove for one minute before returning, the rat will not eat again; evidence for Guthrie's view on repeat what we last did (Contrafreeloading Effect)

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Contrafreeloading Effect

answer

behavior in which animals offered the choice between eating food provided to them for free or working to get that food would eat the most food from the source that required effort; evidence for Guthrie's view on learning

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Accidental Reinforcement

answer

Skinner's belief that whatever behavior occurs when a reinforcer is delivered is strengthened - removed the stimulus from stimulus-response learning (developed response-reinforcement)

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Purpose of the Superstition Experiment

answer

to test the effect on behavior and the stimulus-response-reinforcer relationship

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Quality v. Quantity

answer

the actual quality is more important when it is a primary reinforcer (food at a fancy restaurant v. buffet), but the quantity is more important when it is a secondary reinforcer (money - want more not newer)

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Impact of Premack's Principle on Behavior Modification

answer

behaviors themselves can serve as reinforcers, thereby encouraging behavior therapists to use such reinforcers in their work

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Behavioral Disinhibition

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the inability to withhold a behavioral response

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Mesotelencephalic Reinforcement Pathway

answer

an area in the brain that is divided into the Tegmentostriatel and the Nigrostriatal

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