Biology MTEL – Flashcards
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Anton van Leeuwenhoek
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made 300x microscopes in 1650s described microscopic life
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Koch's postulates
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1. The same pathogen must be found in ever instance of the disease 2. The pathogen must be isolated and grown in culture 3. The disease must result when experimental subjects are inoculated 4. The same pathogen must be isolated from the experimental subject
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Deca-
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10
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Hecto-
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100
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Kilo-
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1000
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Mega-
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1,000,000
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Giga-
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1,000,000,000
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Tetra-
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1,000,000,000,000`
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Deci-
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.1
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Centi-
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.01
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Milli-
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.001
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Micro-
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.000,001
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Nano-
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.000,000,001
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Pico-
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.000,000,000,001
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Chromatography
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uses capillary action to separate substances, such as plant pigments
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Spectrography
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Measures wavelengths of light absorbed and transmitted by a pigmented solution
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Bacteria cell wall
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made of amino sugars (glycoproteins), targeted by penicillin
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Bacteria capsule
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some bacteria, made of poly saccarides for extra protection
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Bacterial evolution
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3.5 mya
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Chromatin
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Nucleic acid and proteins chromosomes are made of
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Chromoplasts
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Make and store colored pigments
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Amyloplasts
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Store starch as a food reserve
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Methanagen
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Obligate anaerobe that produces methane
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Halobacteria
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Obligate on concentrated brine solution
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Thermoacidophile
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Obligate in hot, acid springs
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Oligosaccharides
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act as markers on cell wall
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Pinocytosis
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the cell takes in extracellular fluid in small vesicles
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Hydrolysis
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Water is added, and molecules are separated
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Glycolysis
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Occurs in cytoplasm, does not require O2, driven by enzymes
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Krebs cycle
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Converts pyruvic acid to acetyl CoA to Citric acid, two turns
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Produced by Krebs cycle
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3mol NADH, 1mol FADH2, 1mol ATP
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Light reactions
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convert solar energy to chemical energy, splits water, making O2 and NADPH
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Dark reaction
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Calvin cycle, incorporates CO2 into sugar using NADPH to reduce carbon with ATP
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Chlorophyll a
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reflects green/blue light, absorbs red most common
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Chlorophyll b
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reflects green/yellow light; absorbs red
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Carotenoids
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reflects yellow/orange light; absorbs violet/blue
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CO2 + H2O + energy
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C6H12O6 + O2
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Photosystem 1
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chlorophyll A absorbs light at 700 makes ATP cannot happen independantly
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Photosystem 2
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absorbs at 680 makes ATP + NADPH2 + O2
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Alcoholic fermentation
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converts pyruvate to ethanol in yeast and bacteria
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Lactic acid fermentation
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pyruvate converts lactate in animals and bacteria
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Helicase
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unwinds DNA for replication
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Topoisomerases
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relieve tension of unwinding
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Single strand binding proteins
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SSBs bind to strands to stabilize them
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Primase
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adds ribosomes to DNA to initiate synthesis, making primer
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Okazaki fragments
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lagging strand framents
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DNA polymerases after replication
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remove RNA primer, binds to nick between Okazaki fragment and primer
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DNA ligase
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seals nicks
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DNA polymerase proofreads
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3'-5', repairs 5'-3'
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Initiation, mRNA
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promoter binds to DNA and transcribes mRNA
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Elongation, mRNA
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mRNA is synthesized and separates
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Termination, mRNA
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caused by factors at the end of the gene. mRNA released
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mRNA postranscriptional processing
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1. base with a methyl is added to 5' end to protect from degradation and for ribosomal binding 2. 100-300 adenines are added to 3' end 3. Indrons removed
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translation initiation
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methylated tRNA binds to ribosome and attaches to mRNA
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translation elongation
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tRNAs carry amino acids to ribosome and attach according to mRNA
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translation termination
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ribosome reads stop codon UAA/UAG/UGA
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Uracil
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binds to adenine in RNA instead of thymine
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Thymine
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binds to adenine in DNA, replaced by uracil
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Adenine
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binds to thymine or uracil
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Cytosine
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binds to Guanine
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Guanine
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binds to cytosine
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Duplication (mutation)
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a gene is repeated
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Deletion
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a gene is left out
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Inversion
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a segment is flipped
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Insertion
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a segment from elsewhere is inserted
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Breakage
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a segment is lost
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Frame shift mutation
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changes the reading frame
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Silent mutation
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does not change the amino acid coding
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Mis-sense mutation
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changes the amino acid sequence
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Loss-of-function mutation
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alters structure of protein
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lac operon
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codes for enzymes to convert lactose, contains lac z, lac y and lac a, a promoter and an operator
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restriction enzyme
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a bacterial enzyme that cuts DNA at specific locations
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vector
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bacterial plasmid, virus or bacteriophage that vectors genes
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recombinant DNA
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transports genes across species
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polymerase chain reaction
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quick copying of DNA
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prophase
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1st phase chromosomes condense, nucleolus disappears and nucleus fragments spindles form
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prometaphase
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microtubules attach to chromosomes at centromeres
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metaphase
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2nd phase chromosomes line up
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anaphase
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3rd phase centromeres spilt in half, chromosomes separate, pulled to either end of the cell
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telophase
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nucli form, cell divides
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cytokinesis
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cell division
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interphase G1
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cell grows
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interphase S
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DNA replication
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interphase G2
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organelles divide
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non-disjunction
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sex cells receive the wrong number of chromosomes
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chorionic villus sampling
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samples fetus tissue to test for disorders
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hardy-weinburg theory
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1 = p2 + 2pq + q2
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oparin and haldane
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1920 developed lacking atmospheric O2 theory
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Miller
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1950 showed polymer creation with spark
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Rebek
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1991 synthesized organic material that replicates itself
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gradulaism
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evolution happened slowly, constanly
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punctuated equilibrium
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evolution happened quickly, punctuated by periods of static
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prezygotic reproductive isolation
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prevents cross-species mating
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postzygotic reproductive isolation
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prevents cross-species valid offspring
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allopatric speciation
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speciation without geographic overlap
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sympatric speciation
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speciation as a result of rapid accumilation of genetic differences
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phylogeny
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related by evolution
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homologous characteristics
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traits with the same genetic basis but have evolved differently
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analogous characteristics
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structures with different evolution but used for similar purposes
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convergent evolution
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development of similar adaptations by unrelated organisms
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phylogenetic tree
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tree of life
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cladistics
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the study of the relationship of organisms based on shared characteristics
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properties of life
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1. order; complex organization, 2. reproduction, 3. energy utilization, make and/or use energy to do work, 4. growth and development, using DNA, 5. adaptation to the environment, homeostasis, response to stimuli, evolution
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bacteriophage
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a virus that affects bacteria
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halophile
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lives in high salt concentration
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bacilli
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rod shaped
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cocci
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round
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spirilli
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spiral
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gram positive
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dyes purple, simple cell walls, replicates DNA in rolling circle
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gram negative
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dyes pink complex cell wall more toxic,more resistant replicates DNA bidirectionally
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peptidoglycin
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component of bacterial cell walls
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Archaezoa
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protist that lack mitochondria, and golgi apparatus and have multiple nuclii
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chromista
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diatoms, brown algae, and golden algae, have chlorophyll c
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lycophyta
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clubmosses, seedless
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ectoderm
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becomes epidermis
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mesoderm
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becomes muscles and other organs
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endoderm
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becomes gut
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sponges
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have no true tissue
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diploblastic
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two germ layers; no mesoderm
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triploblastic
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three germ layers
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acoelomates
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no defined body cavitiy; flatworms, obigate parasites
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pseudocoelomates
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body cavity but not lined with mesoderm (nemotodes)
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coelomates
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have true fluid filled body cavity called coelum
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protostomes
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the first opening becomes the mouth and the second the anus, the mesoderm splits to form the coelum.
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deuterostomes
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the mouth develops from the second opening and the anus from the first; the mesoderm becomes the coelum. higher animals
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cleavage
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the first divisions of the fertilized egg
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bastula
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a hollow ball of undifferentiated cells
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gastulation
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tissue differentiates into separate germ layers
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neuralation
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the nervous system develops
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organogenesis
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the organs develop
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malpighina tubes
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tubes in insects that collect waste and excrete it
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porifera
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sponges
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platyhelminthes
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flatworms, have true muscles
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nematocyst
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cnidarian stinging cell
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annelida
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sigmented worms
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echinodermata
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starfish
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aggatha
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jawless fish
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chondrichthythes
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cartilage fish
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osteichthyes
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bony fish
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epithelial cells
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epidermal skin cells
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keratin
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waterproofing protein that protects skin
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dermis
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second layer of skin, contains blood vessels, hair follicles, sweat glands and sebaceous glands
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sebum
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oily secretion that maintains acidic pH (3-5) on skin
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cardiac output
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liters/minutes
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heart rate
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beats/min
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stroke volume
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mL/stroke
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sinoatrial node
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nerve center that originates heart beat impulse
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blood pH
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7.4 pH
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erythocytes
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red blood cells
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leukocytes
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white blood cells
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non-specific immune mechanism
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physical barriers and white blood cell inflammatory response
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neutrophils
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majority of white blood cells
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specific immune mechanism
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recognizes specific foreign bodies and destroys them
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antgien
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foreign body that elicits response
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antibody
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recognizes and latches onto antigen, recognizes repeat invaders
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immunity
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the body's ability to recognize and destroy invaders
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humoral response
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activated by free antigens b cells cause plama to secrete antibodies which bind to antigen and signal phagocytes
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cell mediated response
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infected cells activate t cells which bind to the infected cell and destroy it
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MHC
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unique cell identifiers, cause transplants to be rejected
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pharynx
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throat
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peristalisis
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muscle contractions to assist digestion
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pyloric sphinctor
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leads out of stomach
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meninges
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connective tissue protects the CNS
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somatic nervous system
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conscious control
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autonomic nervous system
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involuntary control
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endocrine system
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system of hormones
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peptide hormones
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amino acid based
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hormone receptors
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on cell, activate ATP to act as hormone inside cell
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hypothalamus
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lower brain, activates pituitary gland
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pituitary
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releases growth hormone and anti-diuretic hormone
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thyroid gland
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near trachea; lowers blood calcium levels, maintains metabolism + homeostasis
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gonads
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in sex organs releases sex hormones
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androgens
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male sex hormones
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pancreas
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releases insulin and glucagen
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glucagen
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opposite of insulin
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gametogenesis
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the development and maturation of sex cells through meiosis
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endothelium
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thin layer of cells that lines heart cavities and blood vessels
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tubil ligation
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surgical sterilization
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implantation
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happens 2-3 after contraception, causes human chorionic gonadtrophin
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trophic levels
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energy and chemical flow in population through feeding relationships
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littoral biome
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from the tide line to the open sea
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epiplargic biome
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the sunlit layer of the open sea
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benthic biome
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the bottom of the open sea
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pelargic biome
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the middle of the open sea
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taiga
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coniferous near-polar biome, largest terrestrial biome
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chaparral
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mild winters, long hot dry summers, few trees,
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biogeochemical cycles
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water, nitrogen, carbon
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anticodon
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the triplet that is opposite to the mRNA sequence
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transpiration
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pulls water up vascular tissue
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pepsin
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hydrolyzes proteins
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pancreas
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makes digestive enzymes
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liver
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makes bile
