Writing, Speaking, and Listening – Flashcards

writers present logical arguments, such as using "If...then...because" statements.

authors ask readers how they would feel about something or to put themselves in another's place, present their point as making them feel best, and tell readers how they should feel

authors present thier points to readers as the right or most moral choices . Authors cite expert opinions to show readers that someone very knowledgable about the subject or viewpoint agrees. Testimonials, via anecdotes about and/or quotations from someone who agrees, add support. Bandwagon appeals persuade readers that everybody else agrees with author views.

presenting their choice as cheaper, free, and/or more valuable for less cost.

presenting their views as more convenient, easy, or relaxing. authors also anticipate potential objections and argue against them before audiences think of them, therby depicting those objections as weak.

Authors can use comparisons like analogies, similes, and metaphors to persuade audiences

Authors can use negative word connotations to make choices unappealing to readers, and positive word connotations to make other choices more appealing. Using humor can relax readers and garner their agreement

First identify the author's thesis, consider the arguments content and the need to present it, does the author offer solutions, are they realistic, research unfamiliar items, outline and summarize, identify types of appeals, and evaluate how well the author communicated meaning from the reader's perspective

Pathos, ethos, and logos in Greek; defined by Greek philosopher Aristotle

Suffering or experience and refers to appeals to the emotions. Writing that is meant to entertain audiences, by making them either happy, as with comedy; or sad, as with tragedy.

Character and connotes ideology; writing that appeals to credibility, based on academic, professional, or personal merit.

"I say" and refers to a plea, opinion, expectation, word or speech, account, or reason.

Must assume that non-technical authors do not have the expertise to comprehend extremely scientific or technical messages, concepts, and terminology. Must resist temptation to use large scientific vocabulary.

Government and corporate policy makers, school programs

Communicating messages, obtaining support, for better informing

First, identify an argument's conclusion. Then identify premises that supports conclusion. Identify any premises not stated by the author that supports conclusion. Evaluate whether they reasonably support conclusion using inductive and deductive reasoning

Why they write it? Determine motivations and goals, find the main idea. If author contradicts parts of the text author may have hidden goals

Post hoc ergo prompter hoc- Latin for after this, therefore because of this. This equates to reap in that because X happened before Y, X must have caused Y.

Irrelevant information introduced to distract others from the pertinent issue

For writing persuasion and argumentation, logic is necessary, but so are supporting facts, insights, and the plausibility of an argument. One reason for knowing the names of, and processed involved in, logical fallacies is enabling writers to identify flawed reasoning by those presenting opposing viewpoints

The writer should first restate the targeted opposing argument. Then s/he points out this argument is a logical fallacy, provideing the Latin name for the fallacy identified. The writer then explains the meaning of this logical fallacy, and why it involves erroneous reasoning. Writers must not use pompous/outrageous language, yet they should speak as if they are the reader. They must state overt examples of a fallacy's incorrectness- such as historical beliefs. Lastly, writers state the erroneous argument should be ruled out entirely, leaving opponents only inadequate remaining argument and an untenable position.

an argument or antiquity. We have often read or heard this used when people write or say, "We have always done it this way." However, it is not logical that the fact of people always having done something intrinsically warrants continuing to do it. Example: supplied state funding for cultural pursuits and the arts. This should not be the author's first choice unless you present it in respecting tradition.

against the person, not the person's statements/ideas. The arguer attacks the person's motives or characters, not what s/he wrote or said. this is less often by name-calling, but more common by attacking the person as information source. This is also used against people arguing for anything that would benefit them and against anything would disadvantage them-like owners of cooprotate conglomerates arguing against anti-trust laws-shifting focus away from the argument's validity to focus on who makes it. It is not fallacious against statements by those with vested interests in deception. Many may be restated about ideas versus people-such as not claiming someone is a facist, but his/her position.

argument appealing to ignorance. In other words, the arguer presumes the truth of somehting based on its not being proven untrue. Example: one would do better by presenting actual data to prove climate change than by arguing it is true because nobosy has proven it false. The burden of proof is key factor for determining whether thsi argument is fallacious or not. As an analogy, in the US legal system, a defendant is innocent until proven guilty.

argument/appeal to logic., presumes something is untrue based on somebody's invalid argument or proof. It is fallacious to deem a proposal false just because of unsound reasoning defending it. Thsi frequently occurs within the context of the straw man fallacy, which arfues against a distortion or exaggeration of a position, not the acutual position.

argument/appeal to pit. This is often employed by those pleading to others for donations and other assistance to help starving children, abused animals, and poor people. What makes this appeal illogical is that by itself, it cannot make expenses free, make true something untrue, or render something possible that is impossible. It is valid, however, to emphasize a problem's significance as a way of supporting one's proposing a particular solution to that problem. appealing to pity is acceptabe to support arguments that a proposal's benefits justify its costs, but unacceptable to as the sole response to objections without otherwise addressing them.

translates literally as argument to the point of nausea. Inother words, this tactic involves repeating one's point over and over until listeners are so disgusted at hearing it that they cannot tolerate hearing it any longer. Reiterating a true statement over and over is not fallacious in itself, but expecting such repetition to replace actual logic is. Despite the absence of reasoning, repetitions has a powerful effect of making one's listeners remember that statements repeated. It needs facts to back up or otherside can point out faults and refute it.

argument or appeal to numbers, is a rhetorical device of citing mathematical figures as "proof" that something is true. Example: one might argue, "80 percent of the public supports this legislation." The fallacy here is that the agreement of the majority does not make something true. This resembles argumentum ad populum-appeal to popularity or to the people. Thier minor difference is thtat arguing to persuade others based on citing how many other people agree. These are similar enough to be often used interchangeably in rhetoric.

arguing or appealing to authority; This is attempting to prove one's position by citing the opinion of someone who is not an expert in the specific subject at issue. Unacceptable uses of the appeal to authority, which opponents are justified in calling out and criticizing, include using unqualified sources to verify facts unaccopnaied by any other sources that are qualified, and /or implying that a given position has to be correct just because somebody thought that was.

Latin for a circular argument. This means that by trying to use the assertion or idea they want to prove is itself a part of their proof, people using circular argumentation are actually "talking in circles." Some politicians and political commentators can be notorious for using circular arguments. To refute, one can summarize the arguer's statement as "You are saying that X is true because X is true," and then additionally point out that the arguer has not provided any information as to why X is true- in other words, they have provided no actual proof.

refers to a rhetorical tactic wherein a speaker or writer forms a question to presume implicitly something not established as true. example: lawyers, reporters. This tactic is employed to trick people into admitting things they would not admit in direct questioning.

Latin for "With this, therefore because of this;" Because these occur together, one causes the other. A parallel fallacy in scientific research is assuming that correlation indicates causation. Things can occur together out of coincidence. Things can occur together, but one is an effect of prior causes. Things can occur together and be unrelated to each other, but both related to a common reason. correlation can never mean causation in scientific research, in rhetoric one may attribute causation to correlation if one can provide sufficiently convincing reasons for it.

spoken simply, a figuratively sweeping generalization. When people make sweeping proclamations they presume are always true, they are stereotyping-which is another term for this. An example is generalizing that as a group, women are not as a strong physically as men and assuming that therefore, they cannot serve equally in the military.

assumes that anything natural or part of nature is good, and/or that anything not natural is bad.

one draws conclusions regarding values- in other words, right and wrong or good and bad-based only on factual statements. This is fallacious because any logical inferences based on facts alone will constitute simply more statements of fact, rather that statements of value. In order to come to conclusions that one states must include a statement of value as well. Having given an axiom of value rather that of fact, them one can use it together with facts to make conclusions about values.

appeal to tradition-that is, something is right because it has always been done, and the appeal to nature-or that something is right because it is natural, are forms of the naturalistic fallacy: they draw conclusions about values using statements of fact without any statements of value to connect logically with conclusions.

1) ask if anybody-yourself, the judge of a devote, or even your opponent who stated it- truly believes this 2) present another value axiom that competes wit it, like "anything that improves people's lives is good," so the judge is forced to choose between the two; and 3) cite logical ramifications of the statement's contradiction of basic morality

it does not follow; If someone says, for instance, "Racism is wrong; thus affirmative action is necessary," this conclusion does not logically follow the initial premise.

begging the question: when attempting to prove something, one assumes the same thing one wants to prove. In terms of logical structure, this is the same as using a circular argument.

" you too" The old saying "Two wrongs don't make a right" addresses this fallacy. In rhetoric, one commits an error in logic- for example, making unproven claims-and defends it by rejoining that the opposition did the same.

When an author writes in this mode, the argument is a belief, position, or opinion that the author wants to convince readers to believe as well.

1) readers should identify the issue the author discusses. Some issues are controversial, meaning people disagree about them. 2) ask oneself what the author's position about the chosen issue is. That position or viewpoint constitutes the author's argument. 3) Readers should then identify the author's assumptions: things s/he accepts, believes, or takes for granted without needing proof. Inaccurate or illogical assumptions produce flawed arguments, causing readers not identifying author assumptions to be misled. 4)Readers should identify what kinds of supporting evidence the author offers-research results, personal observations or experiences, case studies, facts, examples, expert testimony and opinions, and comparisons. 5) Readers should decide how relevant or directly related this support is to the argument. *The first 3 steps to evaluate an author's argument are to identify the assumptions the author makes about the issue discussed in the writing, identify what kinds of evidence the author gives to support the argument, and decide how relevant the supporting evidence. 6) assess whether the argument is valid. 7) determine whether the author's argument is credible, so step seven depends on step six. Readers should not feel overwhelmed at several steps; be mindful of their own biases during evaluation; and not expect authors to prove their arguments conclusively, but rather to reason and support arguments effectively.

readers should identify the author's assumptions about the issue s/he writes about, then identify what supporting evidence the author presents, assess the relevance of that evidence, evaluate the author's objectivity, and consider the completeness of the author's argument.

in research, literature refers to writing on a research topic.

all writing and supporting data published on a given topic or research question

problem is what a researcher wants to find an answer to or resolve

clearly identifies the issue, tells why the researcher cares about this issue, defines the scope of the research by focusing on specific variables, and shows why those variables matter. This follows the title and abstract in the research paper, supplying context for the rest and getting reader attention.

contain original information, like reports other researchers have made of their findings and other first-hand accounts written by experimenters or witnesses of discoveries or events. They may be found in academic books, journals and other periodicals, and authoritative databases. They may be cited, quoted, or described in books, magazines, newspapers, films, audio and video materials, databases, and websites.

the researcher may find through making a careful review of the existing literature that the question s/he has chosen has already been answered indefinitely. The researcher should modify the question or ask a different one. If their research question has not been answered in the literature, researchers should consider the following: What knowledge exists about the topic, in what chronological sequence the knowledge about this topic has been developed, whether there are any gaps in the knowledge about this topic, what needs and opportunities for additional research other researchers and writers have identified, and how one plans to fill in these gaps. Researchers should also consider whether consensus or controversy exists about pertinent matters and, with the latter , which positions exist. Researchers must decide in the context of their work what is important.

one main part is searching through existing literature; the other is actually writing the review. You should print and keep the research question nearby. Finding too many references means it's too broad and you should revisit prompt. finding too little means the research question and/or topic is too narrow, in which case one should reconsider the area to investigate. You should take plenty of notes, start a word processing document, use internet resources regularly, open and examine databases, reference desk materials, find publications with abstracts of articles and books on one's topic, use papers' references to locate the most utile journals and important authors, identify keywords for refining and narrowing database searches, and peruse library catalogs online for available sources. Through all this the writer develops an overview of the body of literature. The researcher should assemble the documents with all the notes s/he has taken while searching, copies of all the journal articles made, and all the books acquired. Then one should again write the research question at the top of a page, and list below it all of the author names and keywords discovered while searching.

This will be for a thesis, dissertation, or research paper. Writers should rewrite as necessary rather than expecting to make only one draft. However, they should also not become stuck in rewriting any portion, which impedes momentum; skipping to a less problematic portion and revisiting the earlier part later is better

after composing a rough draft your should do this. the purpose of the paper is to communicate the answer to one's research question in an efficient and effective manner. The writer should make it as concise and clear as possible. This is easier to do after writing the first draft. The writer should look for consistency as well as succinctness and clarity. Not all readers understand technical terminology or long words: whenever possible, writers should use these only sparingly, and otherwise replace them with shorter, simpler words that do not change the meaning.

Throughout a literature review, the writer should not only summarize and comment on each source reviewed and what s/he has learned from it, s/he should also related these sources and what was learned from them to the original research question. How the research question and pertinent literature interact is a leaning process foreshadowed throughout the body; the writer should explicitly state this in the conclusion, reflecting insights gained through the process.

Formal research paper writers must cite all sources used- books, articles, interviews, conversations, and anything else that contributed to the research.

in research papers, one can make an argument and, without disrupting it, mention studies whose conclusions agree with one's position, and those disagreeing by including parenthetical citations. Quotations should be selective; writers should compose an original sentence and incorporate only a few words from a research source. When quoting sources, students and other writers should work to include quotations and references seamlessly into their sentences, instead of interrupting the flow of their own argument by summarizing the import of a source. Summarizing others' content is often a student ploy to bolster papers' word counts, a technique that is not intellectually original or engaging. Writing that analyzes the content, evaluates it, and synthesizes material from various sources demonstrates critical thinking skills and is thus more valuable.

writers do better to include shorter quotations rather than longer ones. Example: six to eight long passages quoted within a 10-page paper are excessive. It is also better to avoid wording like, this quotation shows, as you can see from this quotation, or it talks about, these are amateurish, feeble efforts to interact with other authors' ideas. Also, writing about sources and quotations wastes words more effectively used to develop one's own ideas. Quotations should stimulate discussion, not quash it. Ending a paragraph, section, or paper with a quotation is not incorrect per se, but using it to prove a point, without anything more in one's own words regarding the point or subject, is avoiding thinking critically about the topic and considering multiple alternatives. It can also be a tactic to dissuade readers from challenging one's propositions. Writer's should include references and quotations that disagree as well as agree with their thesis. Presenting evidence to both sides of an issue makes it easier for reasonably skeptical readers to agree with a writer's viewpoint.

begins on the basis that somethings is true or factual intended to provide information and insight to readers. concentrates on informing readers about why or how something is as it is. this includes offering new information to readers, explaining how a process works to readers, and/or developing a concept for readers. The writing may emphasize such naming and differentiating various kinds of things within a category; providing definitions of things; providing details about the parts of something explaining a particular function or behavior; and giving readers explanations for why a fact, object, event, or process exists or occurs.

strives to prove something that may or may not be true or factual. intended to convince readers that something is true or persuade readers to agree with the author's position

1) locate and select information pertinent to their topic from primary and secondary sources 2)combine their own experiences and existing knowledge with this new information they find. 3) not only select facts, details, and examples relevant to their topics, but also learn to incorporate this information into their writing. 4) need time to develop skills using various writing techniques, such as comparing and contrasting, making transitions between topics/points, citing scenarios and anecdotes related to their topics, and other strategies in the craft of writing. 5) In instruction of explanatory/informative writing, teachers must "read like writers" to use mentor texts to consider author craft and technique. They can find mentor texts to consider author's craft and technique. they can find mentor texts in blogs, websites, newspapers, novels, plays, picture books, and many more. teachers should know the grade-level writing standards for informative/explanatory writing to select classroom-specific, appropriate mentor texts.

writing that tells a story; The most common examples are fictional novels. Non-fictional biographies, autobiographies, memoirs, and histories also use this writing style. Students can write more interestingly by relating events or experiences that were meaningful to them. It should not begin with long descriptions or introductions, but start with the action or event. Students should ensure that there is a point to their story by describing what they learned from the experience they narrate. To write effective description, students should include sensory details. They can access these by reviewing all 5 senses, asking themselves what they saw, heard, felt/touched, smelled, and tasted during the experiences they describe. In this writing, the details supplied should be concrete rather than abstract. Using concrete details enables readers to imagine everything that the writer describes.

Readers have trouble visualizing images or imagining sensory impressions and feelings from abstract descriptions, so this helps clarify and make these more real to readers. It provides information that readers can grasp and may empathize with, while abstract language can leave readers feeling disconnected, empty, even confused. Example: The sun shone brightly, the sky was blue, the air felt warm, and a gentle breeze wafted across my skin.

should be avoided in writing because it will not help readers understand what they want to express. Example: Ms. Couch was a good teacher. This only gives a general idea of the writer's opinoin

typically and individual's personal account of events, experiences. feelings, and thoughts in that individual's life. Many people write these to confide their feelings and thoughts and/or help them process experiences they have had. When people write them as private documents not meant for sharing with others, they may not be concerned with grammar, spelling, or other writing mechanics. However, authors may write these with the expectations or hopes of publishing one day. In this case, they not only express their thoughts and feelings and process their experiences, but they additionally attend to their craft in writing them. Some authors compose these to document particular time periods or series of related events, such as cancer diagnosis, treatment, surviving the disease, and how these experiences have changed/affected them. This can also be therapeutic: some people use them to work through feelings of grief over loss.

The Diary of a Young Girl by Dutch Jewish Anne Frank (1947) contains her life-affirming, nonfiction diary entries from 1942-1944 while her family hid in an attic from World War II's genocidal Nazis. Go Ask Alice (1971) by Beatrice Sparks is a cautionary, fictional novel in the form of diary entries by an unhappy, rebellious teen who takes LSD, runs away from home and lives with hippies, and eventually returns home. The title quotes lyrics from the Jefferson Airplane song White Rabbit (1967), written and sung by Grace Slick, comparing the effects of LSD via extended metaphor to Lewis Carroll's (1865) depiction of Alice's Adventures in Wonderland. Frank's writing reveals an intelligent, sensitive, insightful girl, raised by intellectual European parents, who believes in the goodness of human nature despite surrounding atrocites. Character Alice, influenced by early 1970s counterculture, become less optimistic. However, adolescent searches for personal identity are evident in both books. Frank died in a Nazi concentration camp, while the fictitious Alice survived, but suffered permanent neurological drug damage with flashbacks and formication.

messages written to communicate with other people; In addition to them being written between individuals , some writers compose letters to the editor of newspapers, magazines, and other publications; and some write "Open Letters" to be published and read by the general public. Open letters,

compositions written to be delivered or read in spoken language in public, to various groups of people, at formal or informal events. Some generic types include welcome, thank-you, keynote addresses, position papers, commemorative and dedication, and farewell. These are commonly written in present tense. They begin with an introduction, wherein the speaker greets the audience. At official functions, specific audiences members are named and when audiences include a distinguished guest, s/he is named as well. The speaker introduces himself/herself by name, position, and department/organization as applicable. The speaker then introduces the topic. Then s/he states the purpose of the speech. The body of the speech follows, similarly to the body of an essay, stating its main points, their elaboration, and supporting evidence. Finally, in the conclusion, the speaker states his/her hope for accomplishing the speech's purpose; and thanks the audience for attending and listening to the speech.

refers to writing done exclusively on the internet. Readers of reputable newspapers expect quality content and layouts that enable easy reading. These expectations also apply to blogs. For example, readers can easily move visually from line to line when columns are narrow; overly wide columns cause readers to follow them easily. However, because the way people read on computer, tablet, and smartphone screens differs from how they read print on paper, formatting and writing blog content is more complex than writing newspaper articles. Two major principles are the bases for blog-writing rules: (1) Whereas readers skim print articles to estimate their length, online they must scroll down to scan; therefore, blog layouts need more subheadings, graphics, and other indications of what information follows. (2) Onscreen reading is harder than reading printed paper; therefore, legibility is crucial.

purpose is to tell a story. Even when they mean to teach a lesson or provide insight through relating events and experiences, they still do so by telling stories.

aims to recreate a moment, scene, event, or experience by conveying details vividly to appeal to readers' senses, imaginations, and emotions.

aims to provide information, explain ideas and processes, and/or give step-by-step directions how to do something.

aims to convince readers to agree with the author's viewpoint, opinion, or position, by both providing supporting evidence, and using subjective/expressive language to sway readers' opinions and influence their feelings and beliefs.

rather than informing or explaining as expository/informational writing does, aims to explore ideas; and rather than convincing readers to agree, aims to encourage readers also to consider ideas and various potential thoughts and reactions associated with them. Points are less clear and definitive, and structures looser, in speculative writing than in exposition or argumentation.

introduction, body, and conclusion. The body can be divided into the writer's main points. The number of points is determined by the length; the shortest is three main points. Good organization makes it easier for writers to compose, and provides a guide for readers to follow in reading them. Well organized essays hold reader attention better, and are more likely to get readers to accept their thesis as valid.

should answer three questions: 1. What is the subject of the essay? 2. How does the essay address the subject? To answer this, the writer identifies the essay's organization by briefly summarizing main points and/or evidence supporting them. 3. What will the essay prove? This is the thesis statement, usually the first paragraph's last sentence, clearly stating the writer's message. It gives the essay's topic, previews its organization by summarizing its main points and supporting evidence, and introduces the thesis statement-the writer's major point.

this elaborates on all the main points related to the thesis and evidence supporting them. The conclusion restates the content of the introduction, and may also summarize the argument or description contained. The writer should introduce one main point; explain the meaning of this point; make quotations, cite facts, and offer other evidence to support the point; and then explain how this point and the evidence given to support it are related to the thesis. The writer should then repeat this procedure in a new paragraph with each of the additional main points. In addition to relating each point to the thesis, clearly restating the thesis in at least one sentence of each paragraph is also advisable .

reiterates the content of the introduction, including the thesis, to review them for the reader. The writer may also summarize the highlights of the argument or description contained in the body of the essay, following the same sequence originally used in the body. It will have Point 1 + Point 2+ Point 3= thesis or thesis proof.

teachers can explain to students that organizing their ideas, providing evidence to support the points they make in their writing, and correcting their grammar and mechanics are not simply for following writing rules or correctness for its own sake, but rather for ensuring that specific reader audiences understand what they intend to communicate. The purpose for writing guides word choice, such as encouraging readers to question opposing viewpoints or stimulate empathy and/or sympathy. It also influences narrative, descriptive, expository, or persuasive/argumentative format.

when student writers have chosen a viewpoint or idea about which to write, teachers can help them select content to include and the writing format(s) most appropriate to their subject. They should have students ask themselves what their readers need to know to enable them to agree with the viewpoint in the writing, and/or to believe what the writer is saying. Students can imagine another person hearing them say what they will write about, responding, "Oh yea? Prove that!" Teachers should have students ask themselves what kinds of evidence they should supply to prove their positions/ideas to skeptical readers. They should have students consider what points they will make in writing with which shares in common with them. They should also consider what information they need to share with their readers. Teachers can have students adapt various writing formats, organizing techniques, and writing styles to different purposes and audiences to practice with choosing writing modes and language.

writers begin their first paragraph by sting their main idea or point, also known as their topic sentence. The rest of the paragraph, they supply particular details that develop and support the main point. All can benefit from planning their writing by first making an outline of the topic.

paragraphs begins with the topic sentence, the second sentence may begin with a phrase like "First of All." introducing the first supporting detail/example. The writer may introduce the second supporting item with words or phrases like "Also," "In addition," and "Besides," among others. The writer might introduce succeeding pieces of support with wording like, "Another thing," "Moreover" "Furthermore," or "Not only that, but..." The writer may introduce the last piece of support with "Lastly," Finally," or "Last but not least."

generally a group of sentences that forms a unit separate from other paragraphs. Typically, all of one paragraph's sentences relate to one main idea or point.

1. Focus upon one main idea as a paragraph's subject or topic introduce. It needs to be obvious so the read can infer it or imply it 2. Use specific details to develop main idea. Insufficient makes abstract and boring while excessive makes it unfocused, confusing, and overwhelming