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Any indication that learning has persisted over time. It's our ability to store and retrieve information.

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Memory

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Everyone would be a stranger, including yourself. Every language would be a foreign language.

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If Memory was Nonexistent.....

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Some events stay in our minds and define our world as before and after. Wedding day or the births of children.

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Flashbulb Memory

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Encoding, Storage, and Retrieval.

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The Three Processes of Memory

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Getting information into memory

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Encoding

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Retaining memories for future use

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Storage

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Recapturing memories when they are needed

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Retrieval

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Information enters our Sensory memory briefly and what we pay attention to moves to the working memory. Information that is actually encoded enters long-term memory.

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Three Stage Memory Model

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Everything we see, hear, taste, touch or smell for a few seconds or less.

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Sensory Memory

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What we pay attention to enters the working memory and we hold onto it for about 30 seconds.

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Working Memory

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The information that actual gets encoded from working memory.

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Long-term Memory

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Sensory Memory, Short-term Memory, Long-term Memory

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Atkinson-Schiffrin Three Stage Model Memory

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Some information will skip the first two stages and automatically enter long term memory. Since we cannot focus on all of the sensory information, we only pay attention to that which is relevant and process it into our working memory.

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Modifications to 3-stage model

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Short-term memory involves conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual information and of information retrieved from long-term memory.

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New Information: Short-term Memory

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Some information is automatically processed (route to school). However, new or unusual information (a new cell-phone number) requires attention and effort.

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How we Encode...

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Enormous amounts of information are processed daily, such as information dealing with space, time, or frequency.

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Automatic Processing

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We may remember on a page where a picture is located or where we last saw our car keys (space). We remember when a certain event took place in the day relative to other events (time). We remember effortlessly the frequency of things that happen to us (frequency) (running into a friend several times).

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Examples of Automatic Processing

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Committing novel information to memory requires effort. This creates more durable and accessible memories. This is similar to reading a textbook and trying to remember the information.

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Effortful Processing

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A person would take time to rehearse (relearn) a list of a sequence of nonsense syllables everyday. With everyday that the person rehearsed, fewer repetitions were needed to remember the information.

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Rehearsal Example

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Spacing effect and Serial Position Effect

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Memory Effects

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We retain more information when we rehearse overtime instead of cramming.

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Spacing Effect

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When recall is better for first and last items on a list than for the middle items.

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Serial Position Effect

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Semantics is the encoding of meaning. Acoustics is the encoding of sound. Visual is the encoding of pictures.

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Types of Encoding

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Mental pictures (imagery) are a powerful aid to effortful processing especially when combined with semantic encoding.

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Visual Encoding

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Memory aids that utilize vivid imagery or organizational devices to remember things.

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Mnemonics

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Organizing items into familiar, manageable units. Often occurs automatically. Uses acronyms sometimes: using the acronym HOMES to remember the Great Lakes names. Large numbers: 187283843 > becomes > 187 283 843.

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Chunking

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Complex information broken down into broad concepts further divided into categories and sub categories.

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Encoding: Hierarchies

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Limited in duration and capacity. Magical number of 7, give or take 2 items, that you can remember from a list.

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Storage: Short-term Memory

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The relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system. Divided into Explicit and Implicit memory.

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Storage: Long-term Memory

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Memory of general facts and experiences that one can consciously know or declare. Hippocampus helps process this information for storage.

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Explicit Memory

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Retention without conscious recollection, your motor and cognitive abilities. Also, dispositions and conditioning. Processed in the cerebellum.

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Implicit Memory

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A neural center in the limbic system that processes explicit memories.

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Hippocampus

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Certain neurons in the brain become predisposed to trigger other neurons.

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Memory and Neural Circuits

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Repeated stimulation of neurons increases the likelihood that the network of neurons will respond again and more strongly in the future. important for retrieving memories.

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Long-term Potentiation

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Heightened emotions (stress-related or otherwise) make for stronger memories. Flashbulb memories are clear memories of emotionally significant moments or events.

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Stress Hormones and Memory

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The ability to retrieve info learned earlier and not in conscious awareness. Like a fill-in-the-blank test.

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Recall

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The ability to identify previously learned items-like on a multiple-choice test.

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Recognition

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Amount of time saved when relearning previously learned information

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Relearning

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Activation, often unconsciously, of particular associations in memory. Rabbit > picture of a rabbit > spelling is hare, not hair

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Priming

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French for "already seen." Cues from certain situation may trigger subconsciously the retrieval of an earlier similar experience.

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Deja Vu

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Tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one's mood. Memory, emotions, or moods serve as retrieval cues.

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Mood Congruent Memory

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What is learned in one state (depressed, drunk, high) can be more easily remembered in that state.

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State Dependent

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plan for retrieval at memory.

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Experts at remembering....

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Rehearsing, elaborating, encoding.

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Strategies for remembering

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Remembering in order to preform future acts.

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Prospective Memory

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is limited. We cannot attend to everything in our environment.

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Attention

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may include problems with encoding, storage, or retrieval.

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Forgetting....

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You never learned or have seen material.

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Forgetting: Encoding

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You remember that material was learned, but it is "lost" in your memory.

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Forgetting: Storage

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You learned it, but cannot recall when you need it.

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Forgetting: Retrieval

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Retention falls quickly within the first three years, but soon levels off at a steady rate.

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Forgetting Curve: Storage

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from a failure to retrieve long-term information.

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Forgetting can result....

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Learning some items may disrupt retrieval of other information.

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Forgetting and Interference

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Disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information.

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Proactive (Forward-acting) Interference

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Disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information.

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Retroactive (Backwards-acting) Interference

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Studies show that when information that is studied by an individual, when the individual goes to sleep immediately, will be better retained than information in an individual that stays awake longer.

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Example of Retroactive Interference

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People unknowingly revising memories.

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Motivated Forgetting

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Suppressed Memories and Repressed Memories

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Blocking out Painful Memories

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Deliberately trying to forget memories.

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Suppressed Memories

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Memories are totally blocked from conscious awareness.

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Repressed Memories

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We tend to fill in missing pieces and we filter information.

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Problems with Memory Construction

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Incorporating misleading information into one's memory of an event.

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Misinformation Effect

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Eyewitnesses to a small car accident may reconstruct memories when questioned. "How fast were the car's going when they SMASHED into each other?" Leading question may cause eyewitness to build a larger crash in his memory.

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Misinformation Example

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Recovered memories are commonplace. Memories recovered under hypnosis and drugs are unreliable. Memories of things before age 3 are also unreliable. Memories, whether false or real, are upsetting.

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Common Ideas about Memories

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Study repeatedly to boost recall. Spend more time rehearsing or actively think about the material. Make material personally meaningful.

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Improve Your Memory I

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Associate peg words- things already stored. Make up stories. Chunk-acronyms.

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Mnemonic Devices

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Activate retrieval cues- mentally recreate the situation or the mood. Recall events while they are fresh- write down before interference. Minimize interference. Test your own knowledge.

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Improve Your Memory II

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Have a biological cause, like head trauma or a disease.

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Organic Memory Disorders

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No physical cause for memory loss.

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Dissociative Memory Disorders

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cause memory loss

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Amnesic Disorders

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Can't form new memories.

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Anterograde Amnesia

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Can't recall old memories.

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Retrograde Amnesia

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Memory or cognitive loss

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Dementia

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Most common for of dementia, caused by neurofibrilary tangles and Beta-amyloid plaques in the hippocampus.

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Alzheimer's Disease

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Loss of memory

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Amnesia

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After losing his hippocampus he could not form new memories.

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H.M.

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Psychological disorder characterized by inability to recall important information, usually of an upsetting nature, about one's life.

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Disassociative Amnesia

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Psychological disorder characterized by loss of memory of personal identity and details of one's past life and flight to an entirely different location.

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Dissociative Fugue

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Psychological disorder characterized by the development of two or more distinct personalities.

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Dissociative Identity Disorder

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Memories help shape our lives and our decisions. Happy and difficult memories make up who we are.

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Final thoughts on Memories

General Psychology: Memory – Flashcards

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