Geology test 2 (chapter 4-8) – Flashcards
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earthquakes after the main shock, due to adjusting of the ground
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aftershock
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seismic waves that move through the earth including p and s waves
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body wave
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explains the relationship between earthquakes, tectonic stresses and faulting. Elastic strain builds up on a cult bending or deforming rock, it is then released and the rock rebounds as fault rupture occurs.
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elastic rebound theory
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The point on earths surface directly above the focus
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epicenter
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breaks in the earth along where there has been movement
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fault
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point underground where rock first ruptures (hypocenter)
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focus
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amount of damage done. Measured in terms of its effect on people and structures
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intensity scale
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when the ground is saturated with water when an earthquake comes it makes it behave like a liquid
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liquefaction
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(1989) fires •"World Series EQ" •Magnitude 6.9 •Nimitz freeway
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Loma Prieta earthquake
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alternatively push and pull ricks along their direction of travel/ longitudinal wave
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P-Wave
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amount of energy released•
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magnitude
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Intensity (amplitude of vertical movement) of ground shaking more severe in unconsolidated materials
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material amplification
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Based on damage done and how many people felt it.Ranks earthquake intensities on 12-piont scale. Lables Roman I smallest to XII largest. numeral/magnitude/witness observations
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Modified Mercalli Intensity scale
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Measure of the energy released by the earthquake, estimated by examining the records from seismographs, but also based on actual area of fault rupture and amount of slip on fault
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moment magnitude
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hanging wall moves down
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normal fault
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1994 California killed 57 people were prepared for earthquakes " Earthquakes don't kill people, buildings do"
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North Ridge Earthquake
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compressional waves, travel fastest through all physical states of media/ longitudinal wave
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P-Wave
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possible warning signs
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Precursor
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average time interval between characteristic earthquakes on a fault
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recurrenceinterval
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hanging wall moves up
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Reverse fault
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Measure of the energy released by an earthquake. It is based upon the amplitude or size of the largest seismic wave produced by an earthquake
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Richter Magnitude Scale
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any segment of the fault that has not ruptured recently in comparison to other neighboring segments it is more likely to rupture
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Seismic Gap
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vibrations that travel outward in all directions from the ruptured fault/ body and surface
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Seismic Waves
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Device to record the seismic waves
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Seismograph
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The record of an earthquake squiggly lines on paper
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Seismogram
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record ground motions caused by passing seismic waves. modern seismometers due to vibration record electronically and very accurately note the time and store the data in digital form
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Seisometer
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•The Sendai, Japan earthquake: •Magnitude 9 •Largest EQ Japan has experienced since we have been recording the size of earthquakes. •(Biggest EQ recorded was Mag. 9.5 below Chile in 1960) •Displaced the ocean floor - causing the tsunami •On a subduction zone (convergent plate boundary)
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Sendai Earthquake
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Shear waves, travel slower than P wave, but faster than surface waves, only propagates through solid materials
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S-Wave
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Both sides move horizontally
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Strike-slipt Fault
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Moving along the Earth's surface, travels slowest, but causing most of the damage
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Surface Wave
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Shear waves, travel slower than P wave, but faster than surface waves, only propagates through solid materials
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Transverse Wave (s-wave)
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large harbor waves/Triggered by earthquake, submarine volcanic explosion, underwater landslide, asteroid impact
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Tsunami
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In Haiti, buildings are not designed to withstand shaking or are built improperly, causing far more deaths.
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Why did the magnitude 8.8 Chilean earthquake cause fewer deaths than magnitude M 7.0 Haitian earthquake? What was the tectonic and socioeconomic setting for each earthquake?
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after the elastic strain builds up on a fault bending or deforming rock occurs and then the elastic strain is released and the rock rebounds as fault rupture occurs.
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What is "elastic rebound"?
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Magnitude is amount of energy released/ overall size intensity is amount of damage done/ effects on people and structures acceleration is rate of ground moving during shaking
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Distinguish among magnitude, intensity, and ground acceleration. What does eachmeasure?
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s waves can only go through solids/ p waves can travel through solid or liquid
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Describe the two types of body waves discussed. Which can travel through liquids? Which can only travel through solids?
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surface waves
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Which type of seismic wave is more damaging to buildings: body waves or surface waves?
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3 seismicgraph, seismogram, siesmometer
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How many seismic stations are needed to locate an earthquake?
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31.6 times
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The energy released by one magnitude 6 earthquake is equivalent to how many magnitude 5 earthquakes?
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liquification tsunamis ground motion social and physical damage fires landslides ground displacement
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List the hazards associated with earthquakes.
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Soft sediments or unconsolidated surface materials on bedrock can be a significant factor in amplifying ground shaking/ They act like jello and shake longer then harder rock
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Why do structures built directly on hard granite rock tend to survive earthquakes better than those built on soft sediments?
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Seismic waves travel differently through different rock materials/ they may have more of an effect on something built on clay rather then granite
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What does material amplification mean?
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wet sediments
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Which type of geologic material is the most likely to undergo liquefaction? crystalline bedrock, dry sediments or wet sediments?
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displacement of the seafloor in turn displaces a large volume of water about it. THe sudden displacement causes waves to disperse in all direction.
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How is a tsunami generated?
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drop stop and hold on
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What is the safest thing to do in a building during an earthquake?
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yes
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Are there any historic earthquake epicenters in Cortland County?
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elongated prismatic crystals that parallel the pyroxenes in composition except for the water in their atomic structure.
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amphibole-structure
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A group of minerals that are elongated fibers with a length to width ratio of: >100 : 1 Length : width •Insulating properties •Fireproof
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asbestos
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Blue asbestos includes the amphibole (double-chain silicate) minerals crocidolite and tremolite, which is more dangerous than white asbestos, as it's more brittle and breaks down sooner, into needle-like fibers. This leads to a greater risk of being exposed to airborne asbestos, and exposure to crocidolite has been linked with cancer.
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blue asbestos(5%)(cancer causing)
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95 percent of the asbestos used in the United States, and includes the sheet silicate minerals chrysotile. When the white asbestos breaks down, its particles resemble "rolled-up rugs."
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white asbestos(majority 95%)
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smallest possible division of an element Made up of nucleus of positively charged protons and neutral neutrons surrounded by negative electrons. Building block of all matter
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atom
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crystallizes fast when it erupts onto the seafloor. Microscopic/ hot spots
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basalt
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a serpentine mineral that occurs as elongate fibrous crystals that can be bent or woven. Used for fireproof insulation in buildings/ principle mineral in asbestos
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chrysotile
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after sedimentation gravel becomes this
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conglomerate
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blue asbestos/ needles/double chain silicate/linked to cancer
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crocidolite
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Needles/ blue asbestos/
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double chain silicate
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a substance that can't be broken down chemically into other substances. one type of atom/ same number of protons
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element
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transportation of geosphere materials from one place to another by natural movements of water wind and ice.
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erosion
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form from lava from volcanoes or fissures at the Earth's surface (e.g., basalt).
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extrusive( volcanic) igneous rock
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lots of silicon sodium and potassium and not much iron and magnesium./ igneous rocks
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felsic
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sheeted or leaf like structure
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foliation
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intrusive/ formed from magma/ igneous
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granite
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table salt/chemical (precipitated) / it makes cubic crystals bc of how atoms are arranged
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halite
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rocks that form from magma
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igneous rock
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Andesite/in between mafic and felsic
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intermediate composition
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form below the Earth's surface (e.g., granite),
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intrusive(plutonic) igneous rock
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magma
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lava
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accumulation of calcite on seafloor become this rock/ turns into marble after metamorphism
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limestone
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sediments are compacted by pressure into sedimentary rocks
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lithification
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Magnesium and iron are present/ two of the most common elements in the earth
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mafic
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molton rock under the earths surface
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magma
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Rocks that change at high temperatures and pressure.
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metamorphic rock
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occurring, inorganic, crystalline solid with a set range of chemical components. Composition/ Structure
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mineral
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bonding of atoms
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molecule
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volcanic glass formed as an extrusive igneous rock.
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obsidian
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drives out the water and other volatiles such as carbon dioxide incorporated in mineral structures
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recrystallization
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are an aggregate(mixture) of one or more minerals.
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rock
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melting and crystallization forms igneous rocks weathering and erosion rock breaks down by physical and chemical processes into fine particles that are transported to sediment basins which are sediment depositions then are compacted through lithification to form sedimentary rocks then through metamorphism when heat and pressure cause minerals too form into metamorphic rocks then melt and crystallize all over...
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rock cycle
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depositing of sediments/ range from sand and gravel where rivers carry them to coast and then develop in basins
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sedimentation
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high pressure and temperatures in deep parts of sedimentary basins resulting in compacting and cementation of clastic and chemical sediments
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sedimentary rock
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most abundant clastic rock
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shale
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rolled up rugs "white" asbestos
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sheet silicate
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silicon and oxygen ions combine/building block of most minerals bulk of most crust and mantle
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silica tetrahedron
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includes one silicon and oxygen tetrahedra in its internal structure
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silicate minerals
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found in double-chain silicate "needle" asbestos
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tremolite
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combines with tremolite forming zonolite used for insulation
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vermiculite
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set of physical an chemical processes that change rocks at earths surface
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weathering
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naturally occurring inorganic solids made up of an element or a combination of elements that has an ordered arrangement of atoms and a characteristic chemical composition
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what is the definition of a mineral?
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Are built from the silica tetrahedron •Contains 1 silicon (Si) atom and •4 oxygen (O) atoms
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what is the building block of all silicate minerals? what elements are in it?
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Asbestos is a group of minerals that have are elongated fibers with a length to width ratio of >100 : 1 (length : width), that is used for its insulating and fireproof properties.
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what is the definition of asbestos
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Double chain silicate or amphibole asbestos vs. Sheet silicate or "White" asbestos/ blue "double chain silicate" needles/ is known to cause cancer
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what are the two structures of asbestos minerals? which one is known to cause cancer?
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Igneous, Metamorphic, Sedimentary. worldwide recycling system that changes one rock type into another. It breaks down rocks (a process called weathering), transports and deposits the pieces into sedimentary layers, can melt any rock into magma that cools to form igneous rocks, and/or apply heat and pressure to change the rocks into metamorphic rocks.
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what are the three types of rocks? how is each type formed?how are they classified?
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AFter long periods of time the plate tectonic processes can greatly alter rocks in a sequence of changes called the rock cycle./ Divergent(constructive) plate boundaries we have formation of new rock/convergent plate boundaries (destructive/ recycle)/ transform nothing happens/
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how is the rock cycle related to plate tectonics
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Intrusive feltic- Granite intrusive intermediate-Diorite intrusive mafic-Gabbro extrusive feltic-Rhyolite extrusive intermediate-Andesite extrusive mafic- Basalt
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what are the intrusive/extrusive rock type pais for felsic intermediate and mafic rocks?
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fine grain is extrusive/ cool slowly intrusive are course grain
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What does the grain size of an igneous rock tell us about how it was formed?
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divergent/ new oceanic crust basalt is extrusive
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What tectonic setting (i.e., what type of plate boundary) is basalt formed at?
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granite is found intrusive/ granite is cooler and less likely to make it to the surface/ igneous intrusive along convergent plate boundary/ andes mountains
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What tectonic setting (i.e., what type of plate boundary) is granite formed at?
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Clastic is when its fragments of other rocks (shale)/ biogenic is fragments were produced by biologic activity (pieces of shells) (pieces of plant material)(coal) Chemical-limestone (precipitated)
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What's the difference between clastic and biogenic sedimentary rocks? Name an example from each of these.
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Know that granite is an intrusive (plutonic) igneous rock; know that basalt is an extrusive (volcanic) igneous rock.
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Know that granite is an intrusive (plutonic) igneous rock; know that basalt is an extrusive (volcanic) igneous rock.
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Know that marble is a metamorphic rock that comes from limestone.
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Know that marble is a metamorphic rock that comes from limestone.
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Conglomerate/ Sandstone
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When gravel is compacted and cemented, what clastic sedimentary rock does it become? (see Figure 4-30c)// What happens when Sand becomes cemented?
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type of lava flow More viscous and slow moving, lower temp, with a blocky rough surface texture
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aa
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South AMerican ideal for growing coffee (volcano that benefits) fertile soil
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andes mountain
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pyroclastic material consisting of crystals, rock fragments and bits of glassy frozen magma
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ash
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mt. st. helens/ California
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cascade range
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A lateral blast or directed blast is an eruption that occurs along the slope or flank of the volcano, not at the summit. It can be a dangerous type of eruption if it is associated with sudden decompression of high viscosity magma, causing part of the mountain to be suddenly blown away. This type of eruption was triggered at Mt. St. Helens, when a landslide exposed part of the magma chamber on the flank of the mountain.
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direct (or lateral) blast
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compostional name for igneous rocks with abundance quartz and feldspar/ high silica content/ high viscosity/ domes and explostions
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felsic
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places where voluminous mantle material rises and melts to form magic magma
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hot spot
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in between magic and felsic intermediate viscosity flows and explosions
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intermediate composition
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wet debris flow Picks up anything on the way down
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lahar
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when magma erupts into the surface
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lava
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compostional name for igneous rocks with magnesium and iron/ low viscosity/ low silica content/ eruption style flows
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mafic
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hot and buoyant and less dense then lava and therefore lighter than the solid rock of its surroundings
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magma
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Philippines (1991) Mount Pinatubo •June 15-16, 1991 •Killed 350 people and destroyed a U.S. military base •Nearly 1-ft depth of ash covered buildings over a 40-km radius •Huge cloud of ash 400 km wide into nearly 40-km elevation •Affected global climate (cooler summer the next year; global temp differences ?0.5°C, ~1°F)
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mt. pinatubo
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stratovolcano/ Cascade Range in washington/ found lahar
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mt. rainier
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Worst volcanic disaster US history. 4.2 magnitude 1980. Washington State/ Landslide made it have a lateral blast
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mt. st. helens
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Hawaiian term for type of lava flow typified by a smooth billowy or ropy surface
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pahoehoe
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volcanic materials erupted into the atmosphere/ means fire-broken
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pyroclastics
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consists of hot gases ash and debris/ extremely destructive and can move with deadly speed/ 100mph
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pyroclastic flow
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in the shape of a broad low dome built by successive flows of fluid basaltic lava flow including pahoehoe and aa./ form above hot spots
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shield volcano
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makes magma more viscous because of the strong tendency of silicon and oxygen atoms to combine together even before magma solidifies
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silica
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frequently symmetrical "composite" volcanoes because they are constructed of complexly alternating layers of lava and other volcanic debris. very dangerous/ subduction zones
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stratovolcano
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resistance to flow/ lower viscosity easier flow
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viscosity
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Volume of material ejected •Height the eruption reached •Duration of the eruption
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volcanic explosivity index
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places where molten rock or magma rises from great depths to the uppermost levels of the crust and onto the surface
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volcano
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The eruption of the one with high silica magma is going to be a bigger explosion gas is trapped and cannot flow easily
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How would you expect the eruption of a volcano that taps low silica magma to differ from the eruption of one that taps high silica magma?
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stratovolcanoes
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Which type of volcanoes are found above subduction zones (convergent plate boundaries)?
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shield volcanoes
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Which type are found on above hot spots?
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no
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Would you expect to find volcanoes along transform plate boundaries?
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Mt. Pinatubo-Stratovolcano Mt. Rainier-Stratovolcano Mt. St. Helens-Stratovolcano
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What kind of volcanoes are Mt. Pinatubo, Mt. Rainier, and Mt. St. Helens?
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HOt Spots Hawaii
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What are the geographic locations of some shield volcanoes?
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pyroclastic flows erupt explosively send a colin of debris into stratosphere causing a choking layer over thousand of square mils
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Which volcanic hazards are most associated with stratovolcanoes (composite volcanoes)?
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Pyroclastic flow
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Which volcanic hazards could you definitely NOT out run?
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when the discharge speeds out overall several channels and its sediment is deposited in a fan like way/ over the land
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alluvial (alluvium-sand or gravel) fan
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where many small channels interconnect between areas of sediment deposition
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braided stream
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amount of bed and suspended load a stream can carry/ increases with increase in velocity
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carrying capacity
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place where water is more or less continuously present and the main current flows/ vary in shape from big to small/ when channel is overtopped by water theta is when flooding occurs
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channel
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how much water a river can carry/ width and depth
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cross section
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as it removes bank material the river commonly develops a bare steep or overhanging bank
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cut bank
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deposit of sediment into the mouth of a stream where it can then enter a body of water like an ocean or lake
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delta
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when velocity increases the deposition of the rocks increases
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depostion
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the amount of water flowing in a river at any given time/ it is the volume of water flowing past a specific point on the river per second Q( discharge)=a(cross sectional area0 x V (stream velocity)
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discharge
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•The land area that contributes runoff (overland flow) to a particular stream
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drainage basin
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•A high area or ridge that separates drainage basins •Also called the drainage basin boundary
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drainage divide
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two directions: cuts its channels down to lower and lower elevations or cut laterally into the channels sides the rivers banks.enables water flow to move laterally as much as hundreds of meters per year in some places
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erosion
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occurs when a storm dumps a large amount of rain over a watershed in a relatively short period of time./ high volume of flooding water in very short duration characteristic short lag time usually in upstream
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flash flood
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level areas adjacent to rivers that floodwaters commonly inundate
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floodplain
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slope of river
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gradient
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Graphic representation of a river's discharge over time/ urban vs. forrest land
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hydrograph
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affects how much water is flowing into river
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infiltration
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The amount of time between theoccurrence of peak rainfall and the onset of flooding
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lag time
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show the range in elevation of a rivers channel along its length/ show vertical drop
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longitudinal profile
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bends in the river
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meander
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Natural deposits formed along river banks when the river overtops its bank. Can also refer to man-made structures meant to provide additional channel area to help prevent flooding.
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natural levee
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crescent shaped body of standing water in an abandoned channel of meandering stream
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oxbow lake
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depositional feature made of alluvium that accumulates on the inside bend of streams and rivers below the slip-off slope.
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point bar
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the average time between past flood events of a similar size
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recurrence interval
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involve large volumes of water because they develop in olarfer watersheds
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regional or lowland flood
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area adjacent to the river channel that is reserved to czarry flood water and where no buildings or fill is permitted
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regulatory floodway
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when the ground is saturated with water and causes overland flow/ more urbanization more runoff because its not infiltrating the ground
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runoff
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carried along rivers
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sediment
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streams that flow into another stream
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tributary
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an area where the surface runoff from precipitation onto the land flows together toward lower areas such as lakes or oceans
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watershed
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velocity and discharge
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What two things control the rate at which a river can erode?
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low gradient floodplain meander velocity varies with channel shape
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What features are found on the low-gradient part of a stream?
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upland: shorter duration floods smaller area lowland: longer duration greater magnitude larger area
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How does the cross-sectional profile of a river vary as you go from the upland area to the lowland area?
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makes the profile shallow upstream of the dam and steeper downstream of the dam. deposition in the reservoir and erosion down stream of the dam
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If you build a dam across a river creating a reservoir, what happens to the longitudinal profile? Eventually, what happens to the reservoir?
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the hydrograph would be much higher with regional floods because they typically last longer and there is more time to evacuate flash floods would be a smaller record of discharge/ the regional flood will show a more gradual increase it will show more people have time to prepare
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How does the hydrograph for a regional or low-land flood differ from that of a flash or upland flood?
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REgional floods cause more property damage then flash floods but fewer deaths
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Know the other difference between regional and flash floods.
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climb up to safety
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What should you do if you are hiking in a narrow river valley and you hear a flash flood headed down the valley?
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2 feet
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How deep does water have to be in order to make a car float?
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an estimate of the side of a flood having a recurrence interval of 100 years based on extrapolations of historical annual flood and recurrence interval date.
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What is a 100-year flood?
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Urbanization increases both the frequency of flooding, particularly, of lower-magnitude, flash floods. Due to the contruction of buildings and pavement that comes with urbanization, less water can infiltrate into the ground.
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What is the impact of urbanization on flood frequency and the sizes of floods?
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more frequent flooding no where for the water to inflitration. Discharge increases tremendously. Quicker and stronger peak. Short term flood
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How does the hydrograph for a river change after urbanization? Why?
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slow water delivery to rivers- add some friction to slow it down(basins) divert or store excess water/ build levees, dams/ can be expensive lead to even greater flood losses over time and negatively affect wetlands requires maintenance money later down the river the water will still flood levees can fail
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List some "structural approaches" to mitigating floods. List problems associated with each one.
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floodplain management restrict debelopment and restore river ecosystems
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List two "nonstructural approaches" to mitigating floods. List problems associated with each one.
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build it up higher
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Describe a way to flood-proof a building.
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•Material moves as one piece •On a planar surface •Surface is tilted •Surface may be bedding, foliation, cracks •Also called translational slides
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block glide
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anywhere there is limestone/ can create sink holes in ceilings
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collapse
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Material flows •Material can be rock, debris or earth •Material has some water in it •Material moves slowlyfreeze-thaw cycle
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creep
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course grain soil flow down very rapidly
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debris avalanche
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material that varies depending on what type of material is involved and its water context.; can include water mud boulders and trees and rock fragments
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debris flow
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chemical weathering
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dissolution
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gravity/ the force behind slope
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driving force
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fastest mass movements characterized by the tumbling rolling or free fall of materials down a steep slope or clidd
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fall
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rather then falling slumping or sliding as a block or mass materials move more like a liquid/much faster then creep
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flow
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resistance to movement along a contact between two bodies such as blocks of rock or sand grains/ materials with rough surfaces have more friction then smooth slippery ones
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friction
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downslope movement of earth materials under the influence of gravity/ mass movements
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landslide
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any downward movement of rock or soil due to gravity Only need a slope of 5 Degrees
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mass movement
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landslide/ mass movement all same thing/ one of the most expensive natural hazards in US
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mass wasting
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pressure of water that fills the voids or soil of rock mass
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pore pressure
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oppose gravity and work to maintain slope stability/ friction
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resisting force
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breaks free and falls to the base
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rock fall
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the slide surface is a two diminutional planar surface
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rock slide( translational landslide)
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small circular depressions
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sinkhole
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material moves downslope along a sloping surface/ very slow to fast/
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slide plane
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•Material moves as one piece •On a curved surface that cuts across layers •Also called rotational slides
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slump(rotational landslide)
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the settling or sudden collapse of the level surface with little or no horizontal motion
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subsidence
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piles of angular rock fragments
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talus
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sliding- slump slowest/ rapid translational flow- add water avalanche rapid/ creep/extremly slow fall- extremly rapid/ rockfall creep mudlfows avalanches slump
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How are mass movement types defined?
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water content material in mass wasting
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What key factors most influence mass wasting processes?
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offset fence or leaning tree/ can clear vegetation
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What would you look for as evidence of creep? as evidence of a historic debris flow?
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rotational slide or slump is when the material can slide downward or outward along concave surface and can be broken up. Translational landslide the material remains intact and slides as a single coherent mass or group.
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How does a rotational landslide (slump) differ from a translational landslide (block glide)?
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creep
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Which type of mass movement is the slowest?
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speed in movement
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What role do things like bedding planes, foliations or cracks in rocks play in mass movement?
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it increases movement/ just a little may increase friction though
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How does water influence mass movement?
