Leadership Approaches – Flashcards

• Trait and Skills • Behavior • Contingency / Situational • Participative • Power • Transformational

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1. personality 2. motives 3. values 4. skills

1. surgency (or extroversion) 2. dependability (or conscientiousness) 3. agreeableness 4. adjustment (or neuroticism) 5. Intellectance (or openness to experience)

• People are natural leaders • Abilities, energy, intuition, foresight

Failed to link traits to guarantee leadership success or group performance

• Look for traits that predict emergence as an informal leader in groups • Look for traits that predict advanced to higher levels of management • Look for traits related to effective performance but a manager in the current job

Stogdill (1948) reviewed 124 trait studies conducted from 1904 to 1948 and found that the pattern of results was consistent with the conception of a leader as someone who acquires status by showing the ability to help the group in attaining its goals. 1. physical characteristics (e.g., height, appearance) 2. aspects of personality (e.g., self-esteem, dominance, emotional stability) 3. aptitudes (e.g., general intelligence, verbal fluency, creativity)

1. the conceptual skills (or "cognitive skills") are primarily concerned with ideas and concepts. Conceptual Skills: General analytical ability, logical thinking, proficiency in concept formation and conceptualization of complex and ambiguous relationships; creativity in idea generation and problem solving; ability to analyze events and perceive trends, anticipate changes, and recognize opportunities and potential problems (inductive and deductive reasoning) 2. The technical skills are primarily concerned with things. Technical Skills: Knowledge about methods, processes, procedures, and techniques for conducting a specialized activity, and the ability to use tools and equipment relevant to that activity

1. Personality 2. Motives 3. Values 4. Needs 5. Temperament

1. self-confidence 2. extroversion 3. emotional maturity 4. energy level desire for particular types of stimuli or experiences. Psychologists usually differentiate between physiological needs (e.g., hunger, thirst) and social motives such as achievement, esteem, affiliation, power, and independence.

Needs and motives are important because they influence attention to information and events, and they guide, energize, and sustain behavior.

• are internalized attitudes about what is right and wrong, ethical and unethical, moral and immoral. • Examples include fairness, justice, honesty, freedom, equality, humanitarianism, loyalty, patriotism, progress, self-fulfillment, excellence, pragmatism, courtesy, politeness, and cooperation. • Values are important because they influence a person's preferences, perception of problems, and choice of behavior.

the ability to do something in an effective manner. skills are determined jointly by learning and heredity taxonomies 1. technical skills 2. interpersonal 3. conceptual

primarily concerned with things. Technical Skills: Knowledge about methods, processes, procedures, and techniques for conducting a specialized activity, and the ability to use tools and equipment relevant to that activity

primarily concerned with people. Interpersonal Skills: Knowledge about human behavior and interpersonal processes; ability to understand the feelings, attitudes, and motives of others from what they say and do (empathy, social sensitivity); ability to communicate clearly and effectively (speech fluency, persuasiveness); and ability to establish effective and cooperative relationships (tact, diplomacy, listening skill, knowledge about acceptable social behavior)

primarily concerned with ideas and concepts. Conceptual Skills: General analytical ability, logical thinking, proficiency in concept formation and conceptualization of complex and ambiguous relationships; creativity in idea generation and problem solving; ability to analyze events and perceive trends, anticipate changes, and recognize opportunities and potential problems (inductive and deductive reasoning)

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1950s after many researchers became discouraged with the trait approach and began to pay closer attention to what managers actually do on the job. • Two general subcategories: 1. how managers spend their time 2. the typical pattern of activities, responsibilities, and functions for managerial jobs

• Most research on managerial work uses descriptive methods of data collection: 1. direct observation 2. diaries 3. job description questionnaires 4. anecdotes obtained from interviews.

• descriptive research that was designed to identify typical activity patterns of managers, not to determine how effective leaders differ in behavior from ineffective leaders. • The methods used for this research include behavior description questionnaires, laboratory and field experiments, and critical incidents.

The initial task of the researchers was to identify categories of relevant leadership behavior and develop questionnaires to measure how often a leader used these behaviors.

• Factor analysis of the questionnaire responses indicated that subordinates perceived their supervisor's behavior primarily in terms of two broadly defined categories labeled "consideration" and "initiating structure." • The two types of behavior were relatively independent, which means that a leader's use of one behavior was not necessarily the same as his or her use of the other behavior.

• involves leader concern for accomplishing the task. • The leader defines and structures his or her own role and the roles of subordinates toward attainment of task goals.

• A second major program of research on leadership behavior was carried out by researchers at the University of Michigan at approximately the same time as the Ohio State leadership studies. • The focus of the Michigan research was the identification of relationships among leader behavior, group processes, and measures of group performance. • The initial research was a series of field studies with a variety of leaders, including section managers in an insurance company (Katz, Maccoby, & Morse, 1950), supervisors in a large manufacturing company (Katz & Kahn, 1952), and supervisors of railroad section gangs (Katz, Maccoby, Gurin, & Floor, 1951).

1. Task-oriented behavior 2. Relations-oriented behavior 3. Participative Leadership

Effective managers did not spend their time and effort doing the same kind of work as their subordinates. Instead, the more effective managers concentrated on task-oriented functions such as planning and scheduling the work, coordinating subordinate activities, and providing necessary supplies, equipment, and technical assistance.

The effective managers were also more supportive and helpful with subordinates. Supportive behaviors that were correlated with effective leadership included showing trust and confidence, acting friendly and considerate, trying to understand subordinate problems, helping to develop subordinates and further their careers, keeping subordinates informed, showing appreciation for subordinates' ideas, allowed considerable autonomy in how subordinates do the work, and providing recognition for subordinates' contributions and accomplishments.

• Effective managers used more group supervision instead of supervising each subordinate separately. Group meetings facilitate subordinate participation in decision making, improve communication, promote cooperation, and facilitate conflict resolution. • The role of the manager in group meetings should be primarily to guide the discussion and keep it supportive, constructive, and oriented toward problem solving.

Survey research with questionnaires is by far the most common method used to study the relationship between leadership behavior and various antecedents (e.g., leader traits, attitudes) or outcomes of this behavior (e.g., subordinate satisfaction and performance).

Behavior description questionnaires are susceptible to several types of bias and error (Luthans & Lockwood, 1984; Schriesheim & Kerr, 1977a; Uleman, 1991). One source of error is the use of ambiguous items that can be interpreted in different ways by different respondents. Most leadership questionnaires have a fixed-response format that requires respondents to think back over a period of several months or years and indicate how often or how much a leader used the behavior described in an item.

• The extensive research on task-oriented and relations-oriented leadership during the 1960s gave rise to the idea of the "high-high" leader. • Blake and Mouton (1964) proposed a model called the managerial grid to describe managers in terms of concern for people and concern for production.

...Per Vroom and Jago (2007), Contingency Leadership is the most current trend in leadership with the existence of the most evidence and the most relevant to professional practice. Contingency Leadership is an outgrowth of pure situational leadership theory. Northouse explains these types of leadership theories are called contingency because they "suggest that a leader's effectiveness hinges on context."

o In 1881 - Herbert Spencer mused that "the times make the man," not the other way around as was believed by trait theorists at the time. o In 1948- Ralph Melvin Stogdill declared that leadership is not just traits, but situations as well. o No single, universal leader profile of traits exist. Therefore, everything depends on the situation. o Per Peter G. Northouse, there is a directive and supportive dimension to leadership.

o Directive behaviors - This type of behavior help group members accomplish goals by giving directions, establishing goals and methods of evaluation, setting time lines, defining roles, and showing how the goals are to be achieved. o Supportive behaviors - This type of behavior help group members feels comfortable about themselves, their coworkers, and the situation. The first style (S1) is a high directive-low supportive style, which is also called a directing style. In this approach. the leader focuses communication on goal achievement and spends a smaller amount of time using supportive behaviors. Using this style, a leader gives instructions about what and how goals are to be achieved by the subordinates and then supervises them carefully. The second style (S2) is called a coaching approach and is a high directive-high supportive style. In this approach, the leader focuses communication on both achieving goals and meeting subordinates' socio-emotional needs. The coaching style requires that the leader involve himself or herself with subordinates by giving encouragement and soliciting subordinate input. However, coaching is an extension of this style in that it still requires that the leader make the final decision on the what and how of goal accomplishment. Style 3 (S3) is a supporting approach that requires that the leader take a high supportive-low directive style. In this approach, the leader does not focus exclusively on goals but uses supportive behaviors that bring out the employees' skills around the task to be accomplished. The supportive style includes listening, praising, asking for input, and giving feedback. A leader using this style gives subordinates control of day-to-day decisions but remains available to facilitate problem solving. This type of leader is quick to give recognition and social support to subordinates. Style 4 (S4) is called the low supportive-low directive style, a delegating approach. In this approach, the leader offers less task input and social support, facilitating employees' confidence and motivation in reference to the task. The 'delegative' leader lessens his or her involvement in planning, control of details, and goal clarification. After the group agrees on what they are to do, this style lets subordinates take responsibility for getting the job done the way they see tit. A leader using S4 gives control to subordinates and refrains from intervening with unnecessary social support. o Development level - It is the degree to which subordinates have the competence and commitment necessary to accomplish a given task or. D1 These employees are low in competence and high in commitment. They are new to a task and do not know exactly how to do it, but they are excited about the challenge of it. D2 These employees are described as having some competence but low commitment. They have started to learn a job, but they also have lost some of their initial motivation about the job. D3 This area represents employees who have moderate to high competence but may lack commitment. They have essentially developed the skills for the job, but they are uncertain as to whether they can accomplish the task by themselves. D4 These employees are the highest in development, having both a high degree of competence and a high degree of commitment to getting the job done.

• Charles B. Perrow (1970) Pure Situational Leadership • Blanchard and Hersey (1969a) Situational Leadership Model

o Contingency theories are leadership ideas that contend that there is no one best way of leading, and that leadership behaviors that are effective in some situations may not be successful in others. Yukl defines contingency theories as "leadership effectiveness in terms of situational moderator variables."

• Pure Situational Theory - leadership behavior is constrained by the situation. Supported by some longitudinal studies of organizations performance (universities) in which change of top management was found not to have a significant on the performance of the organization. Assumed leader traits invariant due to selection process. Leadership behaviors constrained by situations. Considered to be pure theory - no useful model of pure situational theory leadership. • Situational Leadership Model (1969) - leaders must match style to the competence and commitment of employees. Leaders must be able to discern the correct maturity/developmental state of each group or every individual follower. In this model, there are four leadership types (S1-S4: Telling, Coaching, Participative, and Delegation) and four levels of follower development (M1-M4/D1-D4). No single style of leadership is the "best," rather, the leader must match the style of leadership to the follower. Favors leader flexibility.

o Least Preferred Co-Worker (LPC) Score - a scale in which a leader is asked a series of questions about the type of co-worker they would least prefer to work with. Leaders that score hard (low) on an LPC tend to be more task oriented and therefore more directive in nature; leaders that score high tend to be more relationship-oriented and thereby more supportive.

o Longitudinal studies of university leadership o Situational Leadership model used by 80% of Fortune 500 companies (Blanchard and Hersey (1993) o Situational Leadership Model is straightforward and easy to use o Situational Leadership Model has stood the test of time o Situational Leadership Model is prescriptive not descriptive, and has practical application in educational, military, industrial, and ecclesiastical organizations.

• Fred Fiedler (1967) - psychologist - Fiedler Contingency Model • Robert House (1971) - Path Goal Theory • Victor Vroom (1973) (+ Arthur Jago and Phillip Yetton) - Normative and Descriptive

• emphasizes the importance of contextual factors that influence leadership processes • Major situational variables include: 1. the characteristics of followers 2. the nature of the work performed by the leader's unit 3. the type of organization 4. the nature of the external environment

• Selection process cannot eliminate all invariance between leaders • Leaders are not figureheads • Lots of dissertations written about the situational leadership model, but very few longitudinal studies • Some claim that subordinate development levels are vague and difficult to measure • Some studies seem to indicate that follower motivation levels change from high to low to high again, rather than evolving from low to moderate to high as implied by the Situational Leadership Model (Veccio, 1987) • Studies by Robert P. Veccio have found that leadership styles S2-S4 had little or no effect on the performance of mature (D4) teachers (Veccio and Fernandez, 1997) • Veccio (2002) also claims that Situational Leadership Model fails to account for the demographics and culture of the followers. • Magnitude of results between the leadership types measurable but not significant (Veccio, 2008).

• Fiedler Contingency Model (1967) - Leaders with low LPC scores will tend to be more directive and more successful in situations that call for directive leadership based on three situational variables to include structured or unstructured task environment, relations between the leader and members (followers), and the position power of the leader in relations to the followers - creating a total of eight "octants." This model favors the notion of putting the right leader in the right job. • Path Goal Theory (1971) - leader's purpose is to create and manage subordinate's paths towards individual and group goals; clarify situations; and get resources. When the leader's behavior is appropriate for the given situation, then good results will occur. This model favors training leaders, rather than picking the right leader for the right job. The theory was "developed to explain how the behavior of a leader influences the satisfaction and performance of a subordinate" (Yukl). Expanded by House in 1996 to add factors such as charismatic and transformational leadership. • Normative and Descriptive Model (1973) - Similar to Path Goal Theory but sharper in focus. Examines to what extent a leader involves subordinates in decision making. The model has five decision processes and seven situations variables.

• d1. Core Research Questions o Vroom and Jago argue that trait and behavioral theories assume a level of 'invariance' in leaders that does not exist in the real world. They argue that leaders have traits that lead to certain behaviors that are modified and/or constrained by situations. • d2. Methods and Methodologies o Fiedler studied military organizations o Research on Path-Goal Theory has yielded mixed results (Yukl). o 120 Study surveys and analysis by Wofford and Liska (1993), extensive review by MacKenzie, Ahearne, and Bommer (1995). o Most contingency theories are so vague that it is hard to "derive specific, testable propositions" (Yukl).

• comparative study of two or more situations. • The dependent variables may be managerial perceptions and attitudes, managerial activities and behavior patterns, or influence processes.

attempts to identify aspects of the situation that "moderate" the relationship of leader attributes (e.g., traits, skills, behavior) to leadership effectiveness. • The assumption is that different attributes will be effective in different situations, and that the same attribute is not optimal in all situations. • Theories describing this relationship are sometimes called "contingency theories" of leadership.

1. path-goal theory 2. situational leadership theory 3. leader substitutes theory 4. the multiple-linkage model 5. LPC contingency theory 6. cognitive resources theory

The relationship between leader LPC score and effectiveness depends on a complex situational variable called situational favorability (or situational control), which is defined as the extent to which the situation gives a leader control over subordinates.

1. Leader-member relations: The extent to which subordinates are loyal, and relations with subordinates are friendly and cooperative. 2. Position power. The extent to which the leader has authority to evaluate subordinate performance and administer rewards and punishments. 3. Task structure: The extent to which standard operating procedures are in place to accomplish the task, along with a detailed description of the finished product or service and objective indicators of how well the task is being performed.

• The path-goal theory of leadership was developed to explain how the behavior of a leader influences the satisfaction and performance of subordinates. • Building on an early version of the theory by Evans (1970), House (1971) formulated a more elaborate version that included situational variables.

• A motivation theory called expectancy theory (Georgopoulos, Mahoney, & Jones, 1957; Vroom, 1964) is used to explain how a leader can influence subordinate satisfaction and effort. • Expectancy theory describes work motivation in terms of a rational choice process in which a person decides how much effort to devote to the job at a given point of time.

• Hersey and Blanchard (1977) proposed a contingency theory that specifies the appropriate type of leadership behavior for different levels of subordinate "maturity" in relation to the work. • A high-maturity subordinate has both the ability and confidence to do a task, whereas a low-maturity subordinate lacks ability and self- confidence

1. For a low-maturity subordinate (M1), the leader should use substantial task- oriented behavior and be directive in defining roles, clarifying standards and procedures, and monitoring progress on attainment of objectives. 2. As subordinate maturity increases up to a moderate level (M2 and M3), the leader can decrease the amount of task-oriented behavior and provide more relations-oriented behavior. The leader should act supportive, consult with the subordinate, and provide praise and attention. For a high-maturity subordinate (M4), the leader should use a low level of task-oriented and relations-oriented behaviors.

The multiple-linkage model (Yukl, 1981, 1989) builds upon earlier models of leadership and group effectiveness, including path-goal theory, leadership substitutes theory, and the Vroom-Yetton normative decision theory.

1. managerial behaviors 2. intervening variables 3. criterion variables 4. situational variables

The six intervening variables in the model are based on earlier research and theory on determinants of individual and group performance (e.g., Hackman, Brousseau, & Weiss, 1976; Likert, 1967; McGrath, 1984; Porter & Lawler, 1968).

The extent to which unit members strive to attain a high level of performance and show a high degree of personal commitment to unit task objectives.

The extent to which unit members understand their individual job responsibilities, know what to do, and have the skills to do it.

The extent to which effective performance strategies are used to attain unit task objectives and the work is organized to ensure efficient utilization of personnel, equipment, and facilities.

the extent to which group members trust each other, share information and ideas, help each other, and identify with the work unit.

The extent to which the group has the budgetary funds, tools, equipment, supplies, personnel, and facilities needed to do the work, and necessary information or assistance from other units.

The extent to which activities of the work unit are synchronized with the interdependent activities in other parts of the organization and other organizations (e.g., suppliers, clients, joint venture partners).

1. Empowerment theory describes how followers view their ability to influence important events (see Chapter 5). 2. Attribution theory describes how followers view a leader's influence on events and outcomes (see Chapter 8). 3. other theories explain how followers can actively influence their work role and relationship with the leader, rather than being passive recipients of leader influence 4. The leader substitutes theory (see Chapter 6) describes aspects of the situation and follower attributes that make a hierarchical leader less important. 5. The emotional contagion theory of charisma (see Chapter 9) describes how followers influence each other. 6. theories of self-managed groups emphasize sharing of leadership functions among the members of a group; in this approach, the followers are also the leaders (see Chapter 12).

Descriptive theories explain leadership processes, describe the typical activities of leaders, and explain why certain behaviors occur in particular situations.

Prescriptive theories specify what leaders must do to become effective, and they identify any necessary conditions for using a particular type of behavior effectively. A prescriptive theory is especially useful when a wide discrepancy exists between what leaders typically do and what they should do to be most effective.

1. A descriptive universal theory may describe typical functions performed to some extent by all types of leaders 2. a prescriptive universal theory may specify functions all leaders must perform to be effective.

1. A descriptive contingency theory may explain how leader behavior typically varies from one situation to another 2. a prescriptive contingency theory may specify the most effective behavior in each type of situation.

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• Participative leadership involves the use of various decision procedures that allow other people some influence over the leader's decisions. • Other terms commonly used to refer to aspects of participative leadership include consultation, joint decision making, power sharing, decentralization, empowerment, and democratic management. • Participative leadership can be regarded as a distinct type of behavior, although it may be used in conjunction with specific task and relations behaviors (Likert, 1967; Yukl, 1971).

1. Autocratic Decision: The manager makes a decision alone without asking for the opinions or suggestions of other people, and these people have no direct influence on the decision; there is no participation. 2. Consultation: The manager asks other people for their opinions and ideas, then makes the decision alone after seriously considering their suggestions and concerns. 3. Joint Decision: The manager meets with others to discuss the decision problem and make a decision together; the manager has no more influence over the final decision than any other participant. 4. Delegation: The manager gives an individual or group the authority and responsibility for making a decision; the manager usually specifies limits within which the final choice must fall, and prior approval may or may not be required before the decision can be implemented.

two varieties of autocratic decision, one in which the leader merely announces an autocratic decision ("tell" style), and the other in which the leader uses influence tactics such as rational persuasion ("sell" style).

1. the leader presents a decision made without prior consultation, but is willing to modify it in the face of strong objections and concerns 2. the leader presents a tentative proposal and actively encourages people to suggest ways to improve it 3. the leader presents a problem and asks others to participate in diagnosing it and developing solutions, but then makes the decision alone. Vroom and Yetton (1973) distinguish between consulting with individuals and consulting with a group.

• This section of the chapter examines the potential benefits of participation and explanatory processes for the effects of participation (see Figure 5-2). • Situational variables that enhance or limit the effects of participation are discussed later in the chapter as part of the theories developed to explain why this form of leadership is not effective in all situations.

• Lewin, Lippitt, and White (1939) and Coch and French (1948), social scientists have been interested in studying the consequences of participative leadership. • After supportive and task-oriented behavior, the largest amount of behavior research has been on participative leadership. • The research has employed a variety of methods, including laboratory experiments, field experiments, correlational field studies, and qualitative case studies involving interviews with effective leaders and their subordinates. • Most of the studies involved participation by subordinates, and the criteria of leader effectiveness were usually subordinate satisfaction and performance.

• The importance of using decision procedures that are appropriate for the situation has been recognized for some time. • Tannenbaum and Schmidt (1958) noted that a leader's choice of decision procedures reflects forces in the leader, forces in the subordinates, and forces in the situation.

Maier (1963) pointed out the need for leaders to consider both the quality requirements of a decision and the likelihood of subordinate acceptance before choosing a decision procedure

• two varieties of autocratic decision (Al and All) • two varieties of consultation (CI and CII), • one variety of joint decision making by leader and subordinates • as a group (Gil).

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• A person with a high need for power finds great satisfaction in exercising influence over the attitudes, emotions, and behavior of others. • This type of person enjoys winning an argument, defeating an opponent, eliminating a rival or enemy, and directing the activities of a group.

• A person with a high need for achievement obtains satisfaction from: 1. experiencing success in accomplishing a difficult task 2. attaining a standard of excellence 3. developing a better way of doing something 4. being the first person to accomplish a difficult feat

A person with a strong need for affiliation is especially concerned about being liked and accepted and is very sensitive to cues indicating rejection or hostility from others.

• examines influence processes between leaders and other people. • takes a leader-centered perspective with an implicit assumption that causality is unidirectional (leaders act and followers react). • seeks to explain leadership effectiveness in terms of the amount and type of power possessed by a leader and how power is exercised.

• survey questionnaire • relate leader power to various measures of leadership • descriptive incidents influences attitude and behaviors of followers

• Influence is the essence of leadership • Much of the activity of formal leaders involves attempts to influence the attitudes and behavior or people • More influence to change strategy • Less when people to change have same objectives and motivated • Power: formal authority, control over distribution of rewards punishment

Concepts of empowerment and power sharing reflect a shift from a leader dominate view to a broader one of follower involvement in expanding power

• Participative decision making (PDM), subordinates influences strategies • Distributing power: delegation in decision making (1) individual member making decisions

• Influence is the essence of leadership. • To be effective as a leader, it is necessary to influence people to carry out requests, support proposals, and implement decisions. In large organizations, the effectiveness of managers depends on influence over superiors and peers as well as influence over subordinates. Influence in one direction tends to enhance influence in other directions.

Terms such as power and authority have been used in different ways by different writers, thereby creating considerable conceptual confusion

• The concept of "power" is useful for understanding how people are able to influence each other in organizations (Mintzberg, 1983; Pfeffer, 1981, 1992). • Power involves the capacity of one party (the "agent") to influence another party (the "target").

Authority involves the rights, prerogatives, obligations, and duties associated with particular positions in an organization or social system. A leader's authority usually includes the right to make particular types of decisions for the organization

The psychological explanation for the influence of one person on another involves the motives and perceptions of the target in relation to the actions of the agent and the context in which the interaction occurs.

1. instrumental compliance 2. internalization 3. personal identification.

The target person carries out a requested action for the purpose of obtaining a tangible reward or avoiding a punishment controlled by the agent. The motivation for the behavior is purely instrumental; the only reason for compliance is to gain some tangible benefit from the agent. The level of effort is likely to be the minimum amount necessary to gain the rewards or avoid the punishment.

The target person becomes committed to support and implement proposals espoused by the agent because they appear to be intrinsically desirable and correct in relation to the target's values, beliefs, and self-image. In effect, the agent's proposal (e.g., an objective, plan, strategy, policy, procedure) becomes linked to the target person's underlying values and beliefs. Commitment occurs regardless of whether any tangible benefit is expected, and the target's loyalty is to the ideas themselves, not to the agent who communicates them.

The target person imitates the agent's behavior or adopts the same attitudes to please the agent and to be like the agent. The motivation for the target probably involves the target person's needs for acceptance and esteem. By doing things to gain approval from the agent, the target is able to maintain a relationship that satisfies a need for acceptance. Maintaining a close relationship with an attractive agent may help to satisfy the target person's need for esteem from other people, and becoming more like an attractive agent helps the target person maintain a more favorable self-image.

a) Reward Power: b) Legitimate Power: c) Expert Power: d) Referent Power:

The target person complies in order to obtain rewards controlled by the agent. Coercive Power: The target person complies in order to avoid punishments controlled by the agent.

The target person complies because he/she believes the agent has the right to make the request and the target person has the obligation to comply.

The target person complies because he/she believes that the agent has special knowledge about the best way to do something.

The target person complies because he/she admires or identifies with the agent and wants to gain the agent's approval.

1. Position power 2. Personal power

includes potential influence derived from legitimate authority, control over resources and rewards, control over punishments, control over information, and control over the physical work environment.

includes potential influence derived from task expertise, and potential influence based on friendship and loyalty. Position and personal determinants of power interact in complex ways, and sometimes it is difficult to distinguish between them..

• A leader's coercive power over subordinates is based on authority over punishments, which varies greatly across different types of organizations. • The coercive power of military and political leaders is usually greater than that of corporate managers.

• This type of power involves both the access to vital information and control over its distribution to others (Pettigrew, 1972). • Some access to information results from a person's position in the organization's communication network.

Control over the physical environment, technology, and organization of the work provides an opportunity for indirect influence over other people.

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• Self • Skills • system

• Confidence • Need for Power • Cause-effect Thinking

• Communicating • Building Trust • Empowering Actions

• Culture • Distributed Leadership • Self-Organization

• Conscientiousness incorporates a sense of self-control, that is, of one's ability to take actions that produce the outcomes and results one desires. • It reflects one's sense of being in control of what happens rather than being controlled by circumstances or by others.

• The social psychologist David McClelland described how development of the need for power, for control over one's environment and one's life, is related to an individual's personal development, from infancy through childhood to adulthood. • He described the infant as focused on the need for closeness to the mother, since it is through the mother that all of a child's needs are met, at least initially. • The need for affiliation develops through the very young child's attachment to the mother, and the attachment process itself is crucial if one is to live successfully in a social environment, that is, among others.

Sociologists and those who study organizations as systems rather than in terms of individuals and groups often see leadership as the development of a strategy by a top management team.

• Development of the human brain can be considered, broadly speaking, in terms of three overlapping stages. • The three aspects of brain development were first identified by the neurologist Dr. Paul McLean who for many years led a neuroscience lab at NIH

Three skills are especially important in the 3S Model: 1. Communication of complex ideas clearly as well as well as getting across values and beliefs; 2. Consistent and credible actions that build trust; 3. Creating empowering opportunities for followers.

• Postmodernism is essentially a way of looking at the world based on the view that subjectivity and interpretation are essential elements of existence. • In this sense postmodernism is more a philosophy than a set of facts. It does, however, prove especially useful for understanding the key to leadership—including distributed leadership.

The 3S Model points out that transformational leaders attend to and act on three system characteristics: 1. Culture of the organization, the shared values and beliefs that drive and guide the actions of organization members (agents); 2. Agency and distributed leadership, the independent, self-directed, and to a degree unpredictable actions of individual organization members and groups of organization members, taking on leadership roles on the basis of their own values and self-interests; 3. Self-Organizing Systems, the emergence of which is outcome of the interaction between culture and agency.

• Max Weber. Charisma is a Greek word that means "divinely inspired gift," such as the ability to perform miracles or predict 'future events. Weber (1947) used the term to describe a form of influence based not on tradition or formal authority but rather on follower perceptions that the leader is endowed with exceptional qualities. • According to Weber, charisma occurs during a social crisis, when a leader emerges with a radical vision that offers a solution to the crisis and attracts followers who believe in the vision. • The followers experience some successes that make the vision appear attainable, and they come to perceive the leader as extraordinary.

1. Transforming leadership 2. Transforming leadership

appeals to the moral values of followers in an attempt to raise their consciousness about ethical issues and to mobilize their energy and resources to reform institutions. Transactional leadership motivates followers by appealing to their self-interest and exchanging benefits

appeals to the moral values of followers in an attempt to raise their consciousness about ethical issues and to mobilize their energy and resources to reform institutions. Transactional leadership motivates followers by appealing to their self-interest and exchanging benefits

• The theory and research on leadership has long recognized that effective leaders empower others to participate in the process of interpreting events, solving problems, and making decisions (Argyris, 1964; Likert, 1967). • The emphasis in most of the traditional approaches is on finding ways to make an individual leader more effective.

• power sharing, and political activities are inevitable in organizations, not something determined by a single all-powerful leader. • Proponents of this perspective recognize that the actions of any individual leader are less important than the collective leadership provided by many members of the organization, including both formal and informal leaders (Day, Gronn, & Salas, 2004).

• How leaders use relations-oriented behaviors to improve relationships was described in Chapter 4. • How leaders develop favorable exchange relationships over time with individual subordinates was described in Chapter 8. • How leaders can develop a network of outside contacts and supporters was described in Chapter 3. • How leaders influence followers to identify with them and cooperate in achieving shared objectives was described in Chapters 2 and 9. • How relationships moderate the effects of leader behavior on subordinate motivation and performance was described in Chapter 6.