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Public speaking

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The process of presenting a message to an audience, small or large

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Empowerment

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To have the resources, information, and attitudes that allow you to take action to achieve a desired goal

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Critical thinking

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To be able to listen and analyze information you hear so that you can judge its accuracy and relevance; a mental process of making judgements about the conclusions that are presented in what you see, hear, and read

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Source

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The job of the source is to encode/translate the ideas and images in his or her mind into verbal or nonverbal symbols (a code) that an audience can recognize

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Message

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The speech itself- both what is said and how it is said

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Channels

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A message is transmitted from sender to receiver via two channels: 1) Visual 2) Auditory

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Receiver

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The individual audience member, whose decoding of the message will depend on his or her own particular blend of past experiences, attitudes, beliefs, and values

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Noise

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Anything that interferes with the communication of a message; can be external or internal

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Feedback

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In public speaking, feedback is considered to be nods, facial expressions, and murmurings

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Context

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The environment or situation in which the speech occurs; includes time, place, speaker's and audience's cultural traditions and expectations

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Rhetoric

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Another term for the use of words and symbols to achieve a goal; often defined as the art of speaking or writing aimed at persuading others

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Declamation

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The delivery of an already famous address

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Elocution

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The expression of emotion through posture, movement, gestures, facial expression, and voice

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Canons

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The ancient Romans identified 5 classical canons (elements) of preparing and presenting a speech: 1) Invention 2) Arrangement 3) Syle 4) Memory 5) Delivery

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General purpose

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The overarching goal of your speech 1) To inform 2) To persuade 3) To entertain

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Specific purpose

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A concise statement indicating what you want your listeners to be able to do, remember, or feel when you have finished your speech

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Central idea

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Identifies the essence of your message; "a one-sentence summary of your speech"; thesis

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Main ideas

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The major divisions of your speech; the key points that you wish to develop; detailed points of focus that help you develop your central idea

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Invention

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To develop or discover ideas that result in new insights or new approaches to an old problem

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Disposition

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The process of developing an orderly speech

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4 styles of communication apprehension

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1) Average- positive approach, heart rate is average, rate own performance the highest 2) Insensitive- had previous experience, less sensitive to apprehension, lower heart rate, rate performance as moderately successful 3) Inflexible- highest heart rate, highest level of anxiety which can be used to enhance performance or can diminish their performance 4) Confrontational- high heart rate as you begin presenting but it tapers off to more average levels, strong emotional or affective response to speaking, characteristic of people with some public speaking background

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Communication

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The transactional process by which people, interacting in a particular way, negotiate the meanings of verbal and nonverbal symbols in order to achieve shared understanding

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Free speech

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The right to speak freely (which must balance with the responsibility to speak ethically); protected by law

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Ethics

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The beliefs, values, and moral principles by which we determine what is right or wrong; criteria for many of the decisions we make in our personal and professional lives and for our judgements of others' behavior

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Credibility

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A speaker's believability; ethos

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First Amendment

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Guarantees that Congress shall make no law abridging the freedom of speech

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Speech Act

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Acts that are protected by the First Amendment

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Ethical speech

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An ethical speaker is one who has a clear, responsible goal; uses sound evidence and reasoning; is sensitive to and tolerant of differences; is honest; and avoids plagiarism

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Accommodation

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Sensitivity to differences; does not mean that speakers must abandon their own convictions or pander to those of their audience members... instead, speakers should demonstrate a willingness to listen to opposing viewpoints and learn about different beliefs and values

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Patchwriting

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Lacing a speech with compelling phrases that you find in a source that you do not credit

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Oral citation

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Can be integrated smoothly into a speech How to: -Provide the date -Specify the type of resource -Give the title -Provide the author or source -Pause briefly to signal that you are about to begin quoting -Quote the source -Pause again to indicate that you are ending the quote

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Written citation

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Bibliography in an essay; MLA or APA

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Plagiarizing

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Stealing ideas

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Listening

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A complex process of selecting, attending to, creating meaning from, remembering, and responding to verbal and nonverbal messages

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To select a sound

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The first stage of listening; to single out a message from several competing messages

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To attend to a sound

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The second stage of listening; to focus on a sound

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To remember a sound

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The third stage of listening; to recall ideas and information

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To respond to a sound

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The fourth stage of listening; Reacting with their behavior to what they have heard

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Working memory theory of listening

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Explains why we sometimes just don't listen well; suggests that when a listener's capacity is reached (when the working memory is full), then it is harder to concentrate and remember what we hear

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Relational-oriented listener

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Someone who is comfortable listening to people express feelings and emotions; highly empathetic and seek common ground with the person you are listening to; enjoy hearing stories about people and personal relationships and are easily moved by poignant illustrations and anecdotes; less apprehensive in interpersonal and group situations

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Task-oriented listener

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Wants people to get to the point; want to know what to do with the information that they hear; more skeptical; prefer to be given evidence to support recommendations for action

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Analytical listener

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Rejects messages because they don't have adequate evidence to support the conclusions; prefer to listen to complex information that is laced with facts and details; withhold judgement before reaching a conclusion; don't like rambling stories that don't seem to have a point; would rather know key facts; make good judges or lawyers

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Critical listener

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Spends time evaluating the messages they hear; comfortable listening to detailed information yet can focus on contradictions and inconsistencies; likely to catch errors in the overall reasoning and evidence that are used to reach a conclusion

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Critical listening

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The process of listening to evaluate the quality, appropriateness, value, or importance of the information you hear

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Facts

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Information that has been proven true by direct observation

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Inference

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A conclusion based on partial information or an evaluation that has not been directly observed

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Evidence

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Consists of the facts, examples, opinions, and statistics that a speaker uses to support a conclusion

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Reasoning

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The process of drawing a conclusion from evidence within the logical framework of the arguments

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Logic

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A formal system of rules applied to reach a rational conclusion

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Rhetorical criticism

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The process of using a method or standards to evaluate the effectiveness and appropriateness of messages

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Symbols

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Words, images, nonverbal cues; using symbols creates meaning in the minds of your listeners and achieve a goal

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Demographics

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Statistical information about characteristics such as age, race, gender, sexual orientation, educational level, and ideological or religious views of a population such as an audience

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Audience analysis

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The process of examining information about the listeners who will hear your speech

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Common ground

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Ways in which you and your listeners are alike

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Audience adaptation

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The process of ethically using information you've gathered when analyzing your audience to modify your message in a way that helps your audience clearly understand your message and helps you achiever your speaking objective

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Gender

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The culturally constructed and psychologically based perception of one's self as feminine or masculine

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Sex

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Determined by biology

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Culture

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A learned system of knowledge*, behavior, attitudes, beliefs, values, and norms shared by a group of people

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Ethnicity

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That portion of a person's cultural background that relates to a national or religious heritage

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Race

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Biological heritage

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Ethnocentrism

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An assumption that your own cultural approaches are superior to those of other cultures

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Socioeconomic status

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A person's perceived importance and influence based on factors such as income, occupation, and education level

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Target audience

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A specific segment of your audience that you most want to address or influence

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Psychological audience analysis

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Explores an audience's attitudes toward a pic, purpose, and speaker while probing the underlying beliefs and values that might affect these attitudes

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Attitude

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Reflects likes or dislikes

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Belief

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What you hold to be true or false

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Value

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An enduring concept of good and bad, right and wrong

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Situational audience analysis

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Includes an examination of the time and place of your speech, the size of your audience, and the speaking occasion

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Brainstorming

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Used to generate ideas for speech topics

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Behavioral objective

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A goal or purpose that specifies the behavior your seek from the audience

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Blueprint

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A statement of your central idea plus a preview of your main ideas

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World Wide Web

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The Internet's primary delivery system

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Boolean search

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Allows you to enclose phrases in quotation marks or parentheses so that a search yields only those sites on which all words of the phrase appear in that order, rather than sites that contain the words at random

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Vertical search engine

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A web site that indexes World Wide Web information in a specific field

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Domain

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.com, .org, .gov, etc.

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Online databases

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Provide access to bibliographic information, abstracts, and full texts for a variety of resources, including periodicals, newspapers, government documents, and even books

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Stacks

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Libraries' collection of books organized by call numbers

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Preliminary biography

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A list of promising potential resources

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Illustration

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A story or anecdote

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Brief illustration

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An unelaborated example that is often no longer than a sentence or two

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Extended illustration

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Resembles a story; has a plot; longer and more detailed than a brief illustration

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Hypothetical illustration

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Describes situations or events that have not actually occurred

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Description

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Provides the details that allow audience members to develop mental images of what a speaker is talking about

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Explanation

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A statement that makes clear how something is done or why it exists in its present form or existed in its past form

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Definitions

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Statements of what terms mean or how they are applied in specific instances

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Definition by classification

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Places a term in the general class, group, or family to which it belongs and differentiates it from all the other members of that class

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Operational definition

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Explaining how something works or what it does

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Literal analogy

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A comparison between two similar things

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Analogy

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A comparison

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Statistics

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Numbers

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Primary source

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The original collector and interpreter of the data

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Secondary source

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The secondhand account

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Opinions

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Testimony or quotations that express someone's attitudes, beliefs, or values

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Expert testimony

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An opinion offered by someone who is an authority on the subject under discussion

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Lay testimony

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An opinion or description offered by a non expert who has firsthand experience

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Literary quotation

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An opinion or description by a writer, expressed in a memorable and often poetic way

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Topical organization

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Used if the central idea has natural divisions

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Principle of primacy

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Most important or convincing point is discussed first

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Principle of recency

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The point that was discussed last is the one audiences will remember best

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Order of complexity

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Progressing from the simple to the more complex

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Chronological organization

answer

Organization by time; usually how-to speeches or historical speeches

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Spatial organization

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Arranging ideas (natural divisions of the central idea) according to their location or direction

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Cause-and-effect organization

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First identifies a situation and then discusses the effects that result from it

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Problem-solution organization

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Emphasizes how best to solve the problem

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Soft evidence

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Rests on opinion or inference

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Hard evidence

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Includes factual examples and statistics

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Signposts

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Organization cues for your audience's ears

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Preview

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A statement of what is to come

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Initial preview

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A state end of what the main ideas of the speech will be

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Internal preview

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Introduces and outlines ideas that will be developed as the speech progresses

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Transition

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A verbal or nonverbal signal that a speaker has finished discussing one idea and is moving to another

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Verbal transition

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Repeating a key word from an earlier statement or using a synonym or a pronoun that refers to an earlier key word or idea

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Nonverbal transition

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Change in facial expression, a pause, an altered vocal pitch or speaking rate, a movement

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Summary

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A recap of what has been said

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Final summary

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Restates the main ideas of a speech and gives an audience their last exposure to those ideas

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Internal summary

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Occurs within the body of a speech; restates the ideas that have been developed up to that point

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Preparation outline

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Includes central idea, main ideas, supporting material, and maybe a specific purpose, intro and conclusion, and references

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Speaking notes

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A shorter outline that you will use when you deliver your speech

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Mapping

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Clustering

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Standard outline form

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Lets you see at a glance the exact relationships among various main ideas, subpoenas, and supporting material in your speech

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Speech to inform

answer

Shares information with others to enhance their knowledge or understanding of the information, concepts, and ideas you present

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Pedagogy

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The art and science of teaching children

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Andragogy

answer

The art and science of teaching adults -Provide information that is applicable to audience members' needs and interests -Actively involve listeners in the learning process -Connect listeners' life experiences with the new information they learn -Make new information relevant to listeners' needs and their busy lives -Help listeners solve their problems

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Word picture

answer

A lively description that helps your listeners to form a mental image by appealing to their senses of sight, taste, smell, sound, and touch

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Anecdote

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An illustration; can provide the basis for an effective speech introduction

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Rhetorical question

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Can prompt your listeners' mental participation in your introduction, getting their attention and giving them a reason to listen

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Closure

answer

Cue the audience that the speech is coming to an end and make it sound finished

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Ladder of abstraction

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Used to model how something can be described in either concrete or abstract language

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Denotation

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The literal meaning of a word; the definition that you find in a dictionary

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Connotation

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Not usually found in the dictionary; the meaning we associate with the word, based on our experiences

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Concise

answer

Succinct; to the point (not necessarily "short")

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Cliche

answer

An overused expression tha has become meaningless and perhaps even irritating

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Ethnic vernacular

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An informal combination of languages such as spanglish

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Regionalisms

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Words or phrases that are specific to one part of the country but rarely used in the same way in other places

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Jargon

answer

The specialized language of your profession or hobby

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Standard American English

answer

The language taught by schools and used in the media, business, and government in the United States (SAE)

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Figure of speech

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Deviates from the ordinary, expected meanings of words to make a description or comparison unique, vivid, and memorable (ex: metaphor, simile, personification)

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Metaphor

answer

An implied comparison of two things or concepts that are similar in some vital way

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Simile

answer

A more direct comparison that includes the word "like" or "as"

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Crisis rhetoric

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Language used by speakers during momentous or overwhelming times

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Personification

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The attribution of human qualities to inanimate things or ideas

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Omission

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Leaving out a word or phrase that the audience expects to hear

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Inversion

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Reversing the normal word order of a phrase or sentence

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Suspension

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Placing a key word or phrase at the end of a sentence rather than at the beginning

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Cadence

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Rhythm

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Repetition

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Using a key word or phrase more than once; gives rhythm and power to your message and makes it memorable

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Parallelism

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Refers to using different words but the identical grammatical patterns

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Antithesis

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Two parts with parallel structures but contrasting meanings; "opposition"

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Alliteration

answer

The repetition of a consonant sound several times in a phrase, clause, or sentence

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Nonverbal communication

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Communication other than through written or spoken language that creates meaning for someone

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Nonverbal expectancy theory

answer

People have certain expectations as to how you should communicate. If you don't behave as your listeners think you should, your listeners will feel that you have violated their expectations. This theory predicts that if a listener expects you to have effective delivery, and your delivery is poor, you will lose credibility.

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Emotional contagion theory

answer

People tend to "catch" the emotions of others

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Manuscript speaking

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Reading the speech word for word off of a script

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Extemporaneous speaking

answer

The approach that most communication teachers recommend for most situations; speaking from an outline (not memorized but also not impromptu)

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Immediacy

answer

The degree of physical or psychological closeness between people

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Immediacy behaviors

answer

Those that literally or psychologically make your audience feel closer to you because they create this perception of closeness and enhance the quality of the relationship between you and your audience

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Volume

answer

Determined by the amount of air you project through your larynx/voice box

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Articulation

answer

The process of producing speech sounds clearly and distinctly

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Dialect

answer

A consistent style of pronouncing words that is common to an ethnic group or a geographic region

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Pronunciation

answer

The degree to which the sounds conform to those assigned to words in standard English

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Pitch

answer

How high or low your voice sounds

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Lavaliere microphone

answer

Often clipped to the front of a shirt or jacket by newspeople and interviewees

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Boom microphone

answer

Used by makers of movies and TV shows; hangs over the heads of the speakers and is remote controlled

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Stationary microphone

answer

Most common type of microphone

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Presentation aid

answer

Any object that reinforces your point visually or aurally so that your audience can better understand it

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Visual rhetoric

answer

The use of images as an integrated element in the total communication effort a speaker makes to achieve his or her speaking goal

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Graph

answer

A pictorial representation of statistical data in an easy to understand format

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Bar graph

answer

Consists of bars of various lengths to represent information

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Pie graph

answer

Shows the individual shares of a whole

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Line graph

answer

Shows relationships between 2+ variables

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Picture graph

answer

Looks somewhat less formal; uses pictures/symbols to supplement the data you are summarizing

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Chart

answer

Summarizes and presents a great deal of information in a small amount of space

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5 types of informative speeches

answer

Objects, procedures, people, events, ; ideas

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Persuasion

answer

The process of changing or reinforcing attitudes, beliefs, values, or behavior

question

Ethos

answer

Ethical persuasion

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Logos

answer

Logical persuasion

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Pathos

answer

Emotional persuasion

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Motivation

answer

The underlying internal force that drives people to achieve their goals

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Elaboration likelihood model (ELM) of persuasion

answer

Explains how people are persuaded to do something or to think about something

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Elaborate

answer

You think about the information, ideas, and issues related to the content of the message you hear

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Direct persuasion route

answer

When you elaborate, consciously think about, or critically evaluate a message

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Indirect persuasion route

answer

When you don't elaborate and are instead influenced by the more peripheral factors of the message and the messenger

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Cognitive dissonance

answer

When you are presented with information inconsistent with your current attitudes, beliefs, values, or behavior, you become aware that you have a problem; you experience a kind of discomfort

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Self-actualization

answer

The need to fully realize one's highest potential

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Benefit

answer

A good result or something that creates a positive feeling for the listener

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Feature

answer

Simply a characteristic of whatever it is that you're talking about

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Social judgment theory

answer

Suggests that when listeners are confronted with a persuasive message, their responses fall into one of three categories: a latitude of acceptance, a latitude of rejection, or a latitude of non commitment and are not sure how to respond

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Proposition of fact

answer

Focuses on whether something is true or false or on whether it did or did not happen

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Proposition of value

answer

A statement that calls for the listener to judge the worth or importance of something

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Proposition of policy

answer

Advocates a specific action (changing a policy, procedure, or behavior)

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Competence

answer

A speaker who is informed, skilled, or knowledgeable about his or her subject

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Dynamism

answer

Energy

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Initial credibility (1)

answer

The impression of your credibility that your listeners have even before you speak

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Derived credibility (2)

answer

The perception the audience develops about you after they meet you and as they see you present yourself and your message

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Terminal credibility (3)

answer

Final credibility; the perception of your credibility listeners have when you finish your speech

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Inductive reasoning

answer

Reasoning that arrives at a general conclusion from specific instances or examples

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Reasoning by sign

answer

A special type of inductive reasoning; occurs when two things are so closely related that the existence of one thing means that the other thing will happen

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Deductive reasoning

answer

Reasoning from a general statement or principle to reach a specific conclusion

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Syllogism

answer

A way of organizing an argument into three elements: a major premise, a minor premise, and a conclusion

question

Major premise

answer

General statement

question

Minor premise

answer

A more specific statement about an example that is linked to the major premise

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Conclusion

answer

Based on the major and minor premise

question

Causal reasoning

answer

When you reason by cause; relating two or more events in such a way as to conclude that one or more of the events caused by others

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Fact

answer

Something that has been directly observed to be true or can be proved to be true

question

Examples

answer

Illustrations that are used to dramatize or clarify a fact

question

Reluctant testimony

answer

A statement by someone who has reversed his or her position on a given issue, or a statement that is not in the speaker's best interest

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Fallacy

answer

False reasoning that occurs when someone attempts to persuade without adequate evidence or with arguments that are irrelevant or inappropriate

question

Causal fallacy

answer

Involves making a faulty causal connection

question

Bandwagon fallacy

answer

Someone who argues that since everyone is doing something, they should too

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Either/or fallacy

answer

Someone who argues that there are only two approaches to a problem and tries to oversimplify the issue

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Hasty generalization

answer

A person who reaches a conclusion from too little evidence or nonexistent evidence

question

Ad hominem

answer

Attacking irrelevant characteristics of the person who is proposing an idea rather than attacking the idea itself

question

Red herring

answer

Used when someone attacks an issue by using irrelevant facts or arguments as distractions

question

Appeal to misplaced authority

answer

When ads use people to endorse something that are no more expert than we are in the areas that they promote

question

Non sequitur

answer

"it does not follow"

question

Emotional response theory

answer

Suggests that emotional responses can be classified along three dimensions: pleasure, arousal, and dominance

question

Myth

answer

A belief held in common by a group of people and based on their values, cultural heritage, and faith

question

Demagogue

answer

A speaker who attempts to gain power or control over others by using impassioned emotional pleas and appealing to listeners' prejudices

question

Symposium

answer

A public discussion during which the members of a group share responsibility for presenting information to an audience

question

Forum

answer

Audience members direct questions and comments to a group, and group members respond with short impromptu speeches

question

Panel discussion

answer

An informative group presentation

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Public-relations speeches

answer

Designed to inform the public and improve relations with them-- either in general or because a particular program or situation has raised questions

question

Kairos

answer

The Greek term that rhetoricians use to describe the circumstances surrounding, or the occasion for, a speech

question

Ceremonial speech/epideictic speech

answer

A speech that brings people together to celebrate, thank or praise someone else, or to mourn

question

Keynote address

answer

Usually presented at or near the beginning of a meeting or conference

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