History 102: History of Europe Since 1648 – Flashcards
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Gutenberg
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Gutenberg = printing press
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Newton
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most famous for his "Law of Universal Gravitation," was instrumental in the scientific revolution of the 17th century; worked with Galileo, Copernicus and Kepler, finished calculus
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Galileo
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mystery of gravity; cosmic glue to keep things on earth - mass & spinning sucking objects
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Descartes
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Co inventor of calculus; made major breakthroughs in math to explain motion
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Francis Bacon
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scientific method; how to research; every time you do A, you get B
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Cromwell
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Oliver Cromwell was an English military and political leader and later Lord Protector of the Commonwealth of England, Scotland and Ireland.
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Hobbes
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believes human beings are inherently savages; natural predators, animal like state for survival; belief in a need for a strong ruler
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Voltaire
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François-Marie Arouet, known by his nom de plume (pen name) Voltaire, was a French Enlightenment writer, historian, and philosopher famous for his wit, his attacks on the established Catholic Church, and his his advocacy of freedom of religion, freedom of expression, and separation of church and state. (1694-1778)
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Locke
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polar opposite; society can remain functional and in agreement for survival rather than going along killing people; writing laws to keep peace; overall believes people are good apples
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Mazarin
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Jules Raymond Mazarin, Cardinal-Duke of Rethel, Mayenne and Nevers, born Giulio Raimondo Mazzarino or Mazarini, was an Italian cardinal, diplomat, and politician, who served as the Chief Minister of the French King from 1642 until his death.
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Louis XIV of France
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Louis began his personal rule of France in 1661 after the death of his chief minister, the Italian Cardinal Mazarin. Louis XIV broke with tradition and astonished his court by declaring that he would rule without a chief minister.
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Colbert
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was a French politician who served as the Minister of Finances of France from 1665 to 1683 under the rule of King Louis XIV. His relentless hard work and thrift made him an esteemed minister; implemented absolutism
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Louis XVI
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When Louis XVI succeeded to the throne in 1774, he was 19 years old. He had an enormous responsibility, as the government was deeply in debt, and resentment to 'despotic' monarchy was on the rise. Louis also felt woefully unqualified for the job.
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Marie Antoinette
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was a French lawyer and politician, and one of the best-known and most influential figures of the French Revolution and the Reign of Terror. He opposed the death penalty and advocated the abolition of slavery, while supporting equality of rights, universal male suffrage and the establishment of a republic
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Robespierre
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was a French lawyer and politician, and one of the best-known and most influential figures of the French Revolution and the Reign of Terror. He opposed the death penalty and advocated the abolition of slavery, while supporting equality of rights, universal male suffrage and the establishment of a republic
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Napoleon I
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Napoléon Bonaparte was a French military and political leader who rose to prominence during the French Revolution and led several successful campaigns during the Revolutionary Wars
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Josephine
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French empress, who married the rising young general Napoleon Bonaparte and became the center of his personal life during the era in which he dominated European history.
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Louis XVIII
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Louis XVIII, 1755-1824, king of France (1814-24), brother of King Louis XVI. Known as the comte de Provence, he fled (1791) to Koblenz from the French Revolution and intrigued to bring about foreign intervention against the revolutionaries. He was recognized as king by the émigrés after the death (1795) of Louis XVII.
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Robert Owen
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Welsh social reformer and one of the founders of utopian socialism and the cooperative movement.
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Mill
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Mill's conception of liberty justified the freedom of the individual in opposition to unlimited state control
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Marx
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Marxism is a method of socioeconomic analysis, originating from the mid-to-late 19th century works of German philosophers Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, that analyzes class relations and societal conflict using a materialist interpretation of historical development and a dialectical view of social transformation.
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Charles X
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For most of his life he was known as the Count of Artois (in French, comte d'Artois). An uncle of the uncrowned King Louis XVII, and younger brother to reigning Kings Louis XVI and Louis XVIII, he supported the latter in exile and eventually succeeded him
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Louis Blanc
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French politician and historian. A socialist who favored reforms, he called for the creation of cooperatives in order to guarantee employment for the urban poor.
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Louis Philippe
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King of the French from 1830 to 1848 as the leader of the Orléanist party. His father Louis Philippe II, Duke of Orléans had supported the Revolution of 1789 but was nevertheless guillotined during the Reign of Terror. He promoted friendship with Britain and sponsored colonial expansion, notably the conquest of Algeria. His popularity faded and he was forced to abdicate in 1848; he lived out his life in exile in Great Britain.
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Charles Albert of Sardinia
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His name is bound up with the first Italian constitution; during the turbulent period of the Risorgimento, the movement for the unification of Italy. Exiled from Italy, Charles Albert, who belonged to a collateral branch of the House of Savoy, was brought up in Paris and Geneva, where he was exposed to the ideas of the French Revolution. Succeeding his father as prince of Carignano in 1800, he was named count by Napoleon in 1810
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Frederick William IV Mazzini
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Eldest son and successor of Frederick William III of Prussia, reigned as King of Prussia from 1840 to 1861. Also referred to as the "romanticist on the throne", he is best remembered for the many buildings he had constructed in Berlin and Potsdam, as well as for the completion of the Gothic Cologne cathedral.
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Garibaldi
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considered one of Italy's "fathers of the fatherland" Garibaldi was a central figure in the Italian Risorgimento, since he personally commanded and fought in many military campaigns that led eventually to the formation of a unified Italy.
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Cavour
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An Italian statesman and a leading figure in the movement toward Italian unification; Camillo Paolo Filippo Giulio Benso, Count of Cavour, of Isolabella and of Leri (August 10, 1810 - June 6, 1861)
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Victor Emmanuel II
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Eldest Son of Charles Albert; King of Sardinia from 1849 until 17 March 1861, when he assumed the title King of Italy to become the first king of a united Italy since the 6th century, a title he held until his death in 1878.
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Napoleon III
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He was the first President of France to be elected by a direct popular vote. When he was blocked by the Constitution and Parliament from running for a second term, he organized a coup d'Ă©tat in 1851, and then took the throne as Napoleon III on 2 December 1852, the forty-eighth anniversary of Napoleon I's coronation. He remains the longest-serving French head of state since the French Revolution.
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Benjamin Disraeli
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British Conservative politician and writer, who twice served as Prime Minister. He played a central role in the creation of the modern Conservative Party, defining its policies and its broad outreach.
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Dreyfus
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French artillery officer of Jewish background whose trial and conviction in 1894 on charges of treason became one of the most tense political dramas in modern French history. Known today as the Dreyfus Affair (sentenced to life imprisonment for allegedly communicating French military secrets to the German Embassy in Paris), the incident eventually ended with Dreyfus' complete exoneration.
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Eduard Bernstein
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German social democratic political theorist and politician, a member of the Social Democratic Party (SDP), and the founder of evolutionary socialism, social democracy and revisionism. Bernstein had held close association to Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, but he saw flaws in Marxist thinking and began to criticize views held by Marxism when he investigated and challenged the Marxist materialist theory of history
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Charles Darwin
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Theory of the evolution of species by natural selection advanced by Charles Darwin.
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Sigmund Freud
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Freud created a description of the mind that emphasizes the major role played by unconscious drives, particularly those of sexuality.
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Nietzsche
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German philosopher, cultural critic, poet, and Latin and Greek scholar whose work has exerted a profound influence on Western philosophy and modern intellectual history
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Max Planck
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German theoretical physicist who originated quantum theory, which won him the Nobel Prize in Physics; quantum theory- a fundamental branch of physics concerned with processes involving, for example, atoms and photons.
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Einstein
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Albert Einstein was a German-born theoretical physicist. He developed the general theory of relativity, one of the two pillars of modern physics. Einstein's work is also known for its influence on the philosophy of science
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absolute monarchy
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kings rule w/o support; people can expect the king to behave a certain way based on tradition - avoids conflict
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constitutional monarchy
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monarchy that operates according to written (or unwritten) rule; power limited by constitution ; can't rule solo
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republic
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not a democracy; not a hereditary monarchy; a state in which supreme power is held by the people and their elected representatives, and which has an elected or nominated president rather than a monarch
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Enlightened Absolutism/ Despotism
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Exercise of absolute power, especially in a cruel and oppressive way.
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law of universal gravitation
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states that any two bodies in the universe attract each other with a force that is directly proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them
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scientific experimental method
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a method of procedure that has characterized natural science since the 17th century, consisting in systematic observation, measurement, and experiment, and the formulation, testing, and modification of hypotheses.
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Enlightenment
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a European intellectual movement of the late 17th and 18th centuries emphasizing reason and individualism rather than tradition. It was heavily influenced by 17th-century philosophers such as Descartes, Locke, and Newton, and its prominent exponents include Kant, Goethe, Voltaire, Rousseau, and Adam Smith - precedes 2nd and 3rd generations
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Egalitarianism
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equal at birth; raise him like a prince and he'll be a prince
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Secularism
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set of beliefs good for society but separate from religion
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Feudalism
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the dominant social system in medieval Europe, in which the nobility held lands from the Crown in exchange for military service, and vassals were in turn tenants of the nobles, while the peasants (villeins or serfs) were obliged to live on their lord's land and give him homage, labor, and a share of the produce, notionally in exchange for military protection.
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Parliamentarianism
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System of democratic governance of a state in which the executive branch derives its democratic legitimacy from, and is held accountable to, the legislature (parliament); the executive and legislative branches are thus interconnected.
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centralization (of gov.)
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one in which power or legal authority is exerted or coordinated by a de facto political executive to which federal states, local authorities, and smaller units are considered subject.
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House of Lords
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Upper house of the Parliament of the United Kingdom; most members are appointed
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Magna Charta
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not a Bill of Rights; King and his nobility have all the rights, and they will discuss amongst themselves - keeps kings from becoming absolute ruler
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Bill of Rights
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king is NOT above the law; lay a foundation; regular elections every 5 years - citizens go vote & king can't change the schedule. American Bill of Rights is a direct descendant of this
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Glorious Revolution
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The Glorious Revolution, also called the Revolution of 1688, was the overthrow of King James II of England (James VII of Scotland and James II of Ireland) by a union of English Parliamentarians with the Dutch stadtholder William III of Orange-Nassau (William of Orange)
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fronde
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The Fronde (French pronunciation was a series of civil wars in France between 1648 and 1653, occurring in the midst of the Franco-Spanish War, which had begun in 1635.
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Treaty of Westphalia
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Series of peace treaties signed between May and October 1648 in the Westphalian cities of OsnabrĂĽck and MĂĽnster. These treaties ended the Thirty Years' War (1618-1648) in the Holy Roman Empire, and the Eighty Years' War (1568-1648) between Spain and the Dutch Republic, with Spain formally recognizing the independence of the Dutch Republic.
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sovereignty
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supreme power or authority.
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balance of power
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a situation in which nations of the world have roughly equal power.
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(Chatuea de) Versailles noblesse d'epee
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Noblemen of the oldest class of nobility in France dating from the Middle Ages and the Early Modern periods, but still arguably in existence by descent. This was originally the knightly class, owing military service (usually to a king, who might be the king of France or the king of England), in return for the possession of feudal landed estates. The term "noblesse d'épée" is largely synonymous with noblesse de race (nobility of family) and noblesse ancienne (old nobility) and is used in distinction from the other classes of the French nobility, namely
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noblesse de robe
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Nobles of the Gown: were French aristocrats whose rank came from holding certain judicial or administrative posts. As a rule, these positions did not of themselves give the holder a title of nobility, such as baron, count, or duke (although the holder might also hold such a title), but were almost always attached to a specific function.
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cahiers de doleance
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The Cahiers de Doléances (or simply Cahiers as they were often known) were the lists of grievances drawn up by each of the three Estates in France, between March and April 1789, the year in which a revolutionary situation began.
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Estates General
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The Estates-General (or States-General) of 1789 (French: Les États-Généraux de 1789) was the first meeting since 1614 of the French Estates-General, a general assembly representing the French estates of the realm: the clergy (First Estate), the nobles (Second Estate), and the common people (Third Estate).
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Tennis Court Oath
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The Tennis Court Oath was a pivotal event during the first days of the French Revolution. The Oath was a pledge signed by 576 of the 577 members from the Third Estate who were locked out of a meeting of the Estates-General on 20 June 1789
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Bastille
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The Bastille was a fortress in Paris, known formally as the Bastille Saint-Antoine. It played an important role in the internal conflicts of France and for most of its history was used as a state prison by the kings of France.
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Great Fear
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A general panic that occurred between 17 July and 3 August 1789 at the start of the French Revolution; Rural unrest had been present in France since the worsening grain shortage of the spring, and fueled by the rumors of an aristocrat's "famine plot" to starve or burn out the population, peasant and town people mobilized in many regions.
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National Assembly
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Existed from June 13, 1789 to July 9, 1789, was a revolutionary assembly formed by the representatives of the Third Estate (the common people) of the Estates-General; thereafter (until replaced by the Legislative Assembly on Sept. 30, 1791) it was known as the National Constituent Assembly - Among the laws the Assembly enacted in these first days were acts claiming the prior taxation laws to be illegal and making promises to institute new, fairer legislation, though in order to pay French debt they kept the old tax laws in place until something better could be devised.
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checks and balances
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Counterbalancing influences by which an organization or system is regulated, typically those ensuring that political power is not concentrated in the hands of individuals or groups.
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Mountain
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these were radicals, for centralization; they often asked for a republican regime
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Gironde
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these were moderates, for decentralization; for the most part they originally accepted constitutional monarchy
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Jacobins
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Jacobin a member of a democratic club established in Paris in 1789. The Jacobins were the most radical and ruthless of the political groups formed in the wake of the French Revolution, and in association with Robespierre they instituted the Terror of 1793-4.
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sans-culottes
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The common people of the lower classes in late 18th century France, a great many of whom became radical and militant partisans of the French Revolution in response to their poor quality of life under the Ancien RĂ©gime.
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Committee of Public Safety Reign of Terror
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Political body of the French Revolution that gained virtual dictatorial control over France during the Reign of Terror; A period of violence that occurred after the onset of the French Revolution, incited by conflict between two rival political factions, the Girondins and the Jacobins, and marked by mass executions of "enemies of the revolution".
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Directory
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new type of republic regime led by moderates post reign of terror
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bourgeoisie
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Middle class, typically with reference to its perceived materialistic values or conventional attitudes.
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liberalism
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Liberalism is a political philosophy or worldview founded on ideas of liberty and equality. The former principle is stressed in classical liberalism while the latter is more evident in social liberalism.
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Congress of Vienna
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conference of ambassadors of European states; the objective of the Congress was to provide a long-term peace plan for Europe by settling critical issues arising from the French Revolutionary Wars and the Napoleonic Wars
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Laissez-Faire
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Economic system in which transactions between private parties are free from government interference such as regulations, privileges, tariffs, and subsidies. The phrase laissez-faire is part of a larger French phrase and literally translates to "let (it/them) do", but in this context usually means to "let go".
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Artisans
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Worker in a skilled trade, especially one that involves making things by hand.
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trade unions
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Organisation made up of members (a membership-based organisation) and its membership must be made up mainly of workers. One of a trade union's main aims is to protect and advance the interests of its members in the workplace. Most trade unions are independent of any employer.
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utopian socialism
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Utopian socialism is a label used to define the first currents of modern socialist thought as exemplified by the work of Henri de Saint-Simon, Charles Fourier, and Robert Owen
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scientific socialism
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Scientific socialism is the term first used by Friedrich Engels to describe the social-political-economic theory first pioneered by Karl Marx.
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economic determinism
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Economic determinism is a theory that economic relationships (such as being an owner or capitalist, or being a worker or proletarian) are the foundation on which all other social and political arrangements are built
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class struggle
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(in Marxist ideology) the conflict of interests between the workers and the ruling class in a capitalist society, regarded as inevitably violent.
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means of production
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(especially in a political context) the facilities and resources for producing goods.
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proletariat
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Used to describe the class of wage-earners (especially industrial workers), in a capitalist society, whose only possession of significant material value is their labor-power (their ability to work); a member of such a class is a proletarian.
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surplus value
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Surplus value is a central concept in Karl Marx's critique of political economy. Marx did not himself invent the term, he developed the concept; when the sales revenue is less than the cost of materials used up
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June Days
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Uprising is a failure, however the provisional government puts forward a new constitution and elections are called in which Louis-Napoleon Bonaparte is elected. The June Days Uprising (French: les journées de Juin) was an uprising staged by the workers of France from 23 June to 26 June 1848.
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Soviets
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Political organizations and governmental bodies, primarily associated with the Russian Revolutions and the history of the Soviet Union, and which gave the name to the latter state.
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New Economic Policy (NEP)
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The New Economic Policy (NEP) was an economic policy of Soviet Russia proposed by Vladimir Lenin, who called it "state capitalism".
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Collectivization (USSR)
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Collectivization was a policy of forced consolidation of individual peasant households into collective farms called "kolkhozes" as carried out by the Soviet government in the late 1920's - early 1930's.
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Paris Peace Conference/ Versailles
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The Paris Peace Conference was the meeting of the Allied victors, following the end of World War I to set the peace terms for the defeated Central Powers following the armistices of 1918. It took place in Paris during 1919 and involved diplomats from more than 32 countries and nationalities.
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Franz Ferdinand
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Franz Ferdinand was an Archduke of Austria-Este, Austro-Hungarian and Royal Prince of Hungary and of Bohemia, and from 1896 until his death, heir presumptive to the Austro-Hungarian throne
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Lloyd George
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Lloyd George was a key figure in the introduction of many reforms which laid the foundations of the modern welfare state. His most important role came as the highly energetic Prime Minister of the Wartime Coalition Government (1916-22), during and immediately after the First World War. He was a major player at the Paris Peace Conference of 1919 that reordered Europe after the defeat of Germany in the Great War.
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Vladimir Lenin
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Under his administration, Russia became a one-party socialist state; all land, natural resources, and industry were socialized into public property. Ideologically a Marxist, his political theories are known as Leninism.
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Alexander Kerensky
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A leader of the moderate-socialist Trudoviks faction of the Socialist Revolutionary Party, Kerensky is a key figure of the Russian Revolution.
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Leon Trotsky
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Leon Trotsky was a Marxist revolutionary and theorist, Soviet politician, and the founding leader of the Red Army. Trotsky initially supported the Menshevik Internationalists faction of the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party
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Joseph Stalin
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Joseph Stalin was the leader of the Soviet Union from the mid-1920s until his death in 1953. Holding the post of the General Secretary of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, he was effectively the dictator of the state.
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Benito Mussolini
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Italian politician, journalist, and leader of the National Fascist Party, ruling the country as Prime Minister from 1922 until his ousting in 1943. He ruled constitutionally until 1925, when he dropped all pretense of democracy and set up a legal dictatorship; He joined forces with Adolf Hitler to fight the Allied powers. Eventually, he was sacked as prime minister and executed by his own people.
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Victor Emanuel III
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The King of Italy from 29 July 1900 until his abdication on 9 May 1946. In addition, he claimed the thrones of Ethiopia and Albania as Emperor of Ethiopia (1936-41) and King of the Albanians (1939-43), which were not recognised by all great powers; During his long reign (45 years), which began after the assassination of his father Umberto I, the Kingdom of Italy became involved in two World Wars. His reign also encompassed the birth, rise, and fall of Italian Fascism.
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Matteotti
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Giacomo Matteotti was an Italian socialist politician. On 30 May 1924, he openly spoke in the Italian Parliament alleging the Fascists committed fraud in the recently held elections, and denounced the violence they used to gain votes
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Hitler
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He was effectively dictator of Nazi Germany, and was at the centre of World War II in Europe and the Holocaust.
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Paul von Hindenburg
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Hindenburg, as German President, appointed Nazi Party leader Adolf Hitler as Chancellor of Germany. Hindenburg personally despised Hitler, condescendingly referring to him as that "Bohemian corporal;
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Neville Chamberlain
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Neville Chamberlain was Prime Minister of Great Britain in September 1939 at the start of World War II. In May 1940, after the disastrous Norwegian campaign, Chamberlain resigned and Winston Churchill became prime minister.
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Edouard Daladier
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French Radical politician and the Prime Minister of France at the start of the Second World War; In 1939, after the German invasion of Poland, he was reluctant to go to war, but he did so on 3 September 1939, inaugurating the Phoney War.
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Roosevelt
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President of the United States of America (1933-1945). He declared war on Japan after the bombing at Pearl Harbor, but unfortunately he did not live long enough to celebrate the Allies' victory in September of 1945.
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Winston Churchill
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Prime Minister of Great Britain during most of the war, from 1940 to 1945, Churchill led Britain to victory. During the Battle of Britain, Churchill's speeches boosted the British morale during the darkest moments.
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Truman
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Became president of the United States in the final year of World War II. He played a major role in the war's outcome by making the decision to use the atomic bomb against Japan.
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Gorbachev
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Mikhail Sergeyevich Gorbachev is a former Soviet statesman. He was the eighth and last leader of the Soviet Union, having served as General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union from 1985 until 1991 when the party was dissolved
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Treaty
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A treaty is an agreement under international law entered into by actors in international law, namely sovereign states and international organizations
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Squadristi (Blackshirts)
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Fascist paramilitary armed squads in Italy during the period immediately following World War I and until the end of World War II.
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March on Rome
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March by which Italian dictator Benito Mussolini's National Fascist Party (Partito Nazionale Fascista, or PNF) came to power in the Kingdom of Italy (Regno d'Italia). The march took place from 22 to 29 October 1922.
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Lateran Pact
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It recognized the Vatican as an independent state, with Prime Minister Benito Mussolini agreeing to give the church financial support in return for public support from the pope at the time
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Locarno Treaty
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The Locarno Treaties were seven agreements negotiated at Locarno, Switzerland, on 5-16 October 1925 and formally signed in London on 1 December, in which the First World War Western European Allied powers and the new states of Central and Eastern Europe sought to secure the post-war territorial settlement, and return normalizing relations with defeated Germany
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Dawes Plan
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Chaired by Charles G. Dawes was an attempt in 1924 to solve the reparations problem, which had bedeviled international politics following World War I and the Treaty of Versailles.
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Beer Hall Putsch
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(Munich Putsch) a failed coup attempt by the Nazi Party leader Adolf Hitler; to seize power in Munich, Bavaria, during 8-9 November 1923.
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Mein Kampf
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Autobiographical manifesto by the National Socialist leader Adolf Hitler, in which he outlines his political ideology and future plans for Germany
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SA and SS
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The SS, initially Hitler's bodyguards, and the SA, the street fighters or Storm Troopers of the Nazi party
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Sudentenland
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German name to refer to those northern, southwest, and western areas of Czechoslovakia which were inhabited primarily by German speakers, specifically the border districts of Bohemia, Moravia, and those parts of Silesia located within Czechoslovakia.
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Rhineland
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Name for several areas of Western Germany along the Middle and Lower Rhine; On 7 March 1936, Adolf Hitler took a massive gamble by sending 30,000 troops into the Rhineland
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Ruhr
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A period of military occupation of the German Ruhr valley by France and Belgium between 1923 and 1925 in response to the Weimar Republic's failure to continue its reparation payments in the aftermath of World War I; Ruhr region or Ruhr valley, is an urban area in North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany
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Lebensraum
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A racist ideology that proposed the aggressive, territorial expansion of Germany, especially into Eastern Europe
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Nuremberg Laws
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At the annual party rally held in Nuremberg in 1935, the Nazis announced new laws which institutionalized many of the racial theories prevalent in Nazi ideology. The laws excluded German Jews from Reich citizenship and prohibited them from marrying or having sexual relations with persons of "German or related blood.
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Appeasement
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Appeasement in a political context is a diplomatic policy of making political or material concessions to an enemy power in order to avoid conflict
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NAZI- Soviet Pact
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Stalin and Hitler agreed not to go to war with each other and to split Poland between them.
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Final Solution
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Global plan during World War II to systematically exterminate the Jewish population in Nazi-occupied Europe through genocide.
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Holocaust
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The Holocaust, also known as the Shoah, was a genocide in which approximately six million Jews were killed by Adolf Hitler's Nazi regime and its collaborators
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Yalta and Potsdam Conferences
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The Yalta Conference was a meeting of British prime minister Winston Churchill, Soviet premier Joseph Stalin, and President Franklin D. Roosevelt early in February 1945 as World War II was winding down; made postwar decisions regarding Germany, Soviet Union and the US
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Truman Doctrine
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The Truman Doctrine was an American foreign policy to stop Soviet imperialism during the Cold War. It was announced to Congress by President Harry S. Truman on March 12, 1947 when he pledged to contain Soviet threats to Greece and Turkey.
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Marshall Plan
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The Marshall Plan (officially the European Recovery Program, ERP) was an American initiative to aid Western Europe, in which the United States gave $13 billion (approximately $130 billion in current dollar value as of August 2015) in economic support to help rebuild Western European economies after the end of World War II.
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Schuman Plan
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Schuman Plan, proposal by French foreign minister Robert Schuman on May 9, 1950, for the creation of a single authority to control the production of steel and coal in France and West Germany (now Germany), to be opened for membership to other European countries
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European Union (EU)
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European committee functioning on one economic unit; euro
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NATO
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North Atlantic Treaty Organization: the organization constitutes a system of collective defence whereby its member states agree to mutual defense in response to an attack by any external party.
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Warsaw Pact
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The Warsaw Pact (formally, the Treaty of Friendship, Co-operation, and Mutual Assistance, sometimes, informally WarPac, akin in format to NATO) was a collective defense treaty among eight communist states of Central and Eastern Europe in existence during the Cold War, led by the USSR.
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Perestroika
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Perestroika was a political movement for reformation within the Communist Party of the Soviet Union during the 1980s, widely associated with Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev and his glasnost (meaning "openness") policy reform.
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glasnot
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Soviet policy of open discussion of political and social issues. It was instituted by Mikhail Gorbachev in the late 1980s and began the democratization of the Soviet Union.
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Aristotle and Ptolemy
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Ptolemy enlarged Aristotle's ideas creating a very involved model of the solar system which endured until the Copernican revolution of the middle 16th century