AP World Ch. 33 – Flashcards

- French revolution and Napoleonic conquests lead to nationalism in much of Europe. self-determination is a central concept of nationalism. this ended up leading to the independence/unification of Belgium, Italy, and Germany. but the issue of nationalism was still unresolved in eastern Europe and the Balkans. after 1829 the Turkish empire shriveled and this deterioration led to nationalist revolts by many subjects. Greece was the first to gain independence in 1830. Austria-Hungary also had nationalist problems - *the most menacing and militant were the Serbs who presssed for unification with the independent kingdom of Serbia. Russia added to this conflict by supporting pan-slavism which is a movement that stressed the ethnic and cultural kinship of various slav peoples of eastern and east central Europe and sought to unite them. the purpose of pan-slavism was to promote secession by slav areas and weaken Austrian rule which would create more available territory for Russian annexation and Russian expansion.

- industrialized European nations engaged in tariff wars but the most unsettling economic rivalry involved great Britain and Germany. rapid german industrialization was threatening Britain's industrial dominance. both Germany and Britain believed that naval power was necessary to secure trade routes and protect merchant shipping so they engaged in a naval race. british government started constructing dreadnoughts which were super battleships. then germans built their own dreadnoughts. - economic rivalries also lead to colonial disputes between many different countries. but the competition between Germany and great Britain and france and Germany was the most intense and dangerous. Germany was mad that france and great Britain already dominated the world in terms of colonial territory. btwn 1905-1914 international confrontations raised tensions.... first crisis was in morocco in 1905 where german government recognized independence of morocco (which the French were encroaching upon) in order to upset france diplomatically. the French threatened the germans with war. the Balkan wars between 1912-1913 were wars for possession of European territories held by the ottoman empire and these strained European diplomatic relationships as well. public pressure for extremely nationalist citizens also led to national rivalries.

- by 1914 Europe's major powers had transformed themselves into the Triple Alliance and the Triple Entente. in 1879 Germany and Austria-Hungary create the dual alliance which was a defensive pact created to ensure protection from a Russian attack and neutrality in case of an attack from any other power. but Italy joined in 1882 bc it was scared of france and then the alliance was known as the triple alliance. - French were still super angry about the franco-prussian war of 1870-1871 and wanted to stop german growth so russia, great Britain, and france created the triple entente (a.k.a. the allies).

- in the event of war, each country's military staff had to devise military plans. german general Count Alfred von Schlieffen created the Schlieffen plan which consisted of quickly defeating france on the western front and then focusing on defensive action against russia on the eastern front in order to avoid a deadly two front war. they devised it this way bc they knew that it took russia a long time to mobilize their troops. but the Schlieffen plan had logistical problems (like moving all those german troops to france and Belgium). *Germany's military strategy was also an obstacle to preserving peace as well.

- intellectuals and city dwellers met the news of war with euphoria (they saw it as a release of pressure and thought the war would only last a few months). on June 28 1914 gavrilo princip shot archduke francis ferdinand. gavrilo was part of a terrorist group known as the Black Hand which was dedicated to forming a larger Serbia that would unify all south slavs (Yugoslavs) into the neighboring country of Serbia. austrian leaders issued an ultimatum to serbian government on july 23 but serbian government did not accept every term of the agreement because it violated their sovereignty. then austria-hungary declared war on serbia (bc apparently their response to the ultimatum was unsatisfactory). - july 29 russian government mobilizes its troops to defend its serbian ally from austria. germans gave russians an ultimatum saying that they stop mobilizing immediately but russians and germans sent an ultimatum to france demanding to know what the french intentions were in case germany and russia went to war. BUT russia did not stop mobilizing and france did not reply so on august 1 germany declares war on russia and on august 3 they declare war on france. - on august 3 german troops invade belgium (following the schlieffen plan). but belgian government points out that according to the treaty of 1839 they are a neutral country and british government gives germany an ultimatum on august 4 demanding that neutrality be respected but it wasn't so british declare war on germany.

- everyone thought the war would be brief and therefore were expecting swift triumphs BUT that did NOT happen. after the battle of the marne, there was basically a stalemate between troops. italy ends up leaving the triple alliance in favor of neutrality but entered the war on the side of the allies in 1915.

- barbed wire was used in no man's land. no man's land and the continuous fire of machine guns in this zone led to stalemate because if a troop tried to cross no man's land, it was virtual suicide. *the machine gun was first used in the civil war (gatling gun) and since then it was a key weapon in colonial expansion and now in the great war. it was one of the most important advances in military technology. - the stalemate of the great war led to the development of new weapons such as poisonous gas which was first used by germans in january 1915. mustard gas was probably the worst - it rotted the body from the inside out. but poisonous gas did not solve the problem of stalemate. tanks and airplanes were also new. british introduced tanks in 1915 (tanks were more popular in the second world war). bc airplanes did not carry enough weapons to inflict serious damage, they were mostly used for reconnaissance. airplane was also more important in the second world war. the submarine also started to play a significant role in the great war ever since the germans started using it. germany navy relied the most on submarines.

- bc of trench warfare and brutal life on the fronts, war lost its noble characteristics and people started to truly understand the horrific nature of war. - by the summer of 1915, central powers drove russian armies out of prussia and established a defensive line from baltic to ukraine. russian defeats undermined the popularity of the tsar. - in 1916 the germans tried to break the deadlock in western front with an assault on fortress of Verdun (Battle of Verdun) but the french were determined to hold their ground and they did BUT many many people died. then the british decided to counterattack at the Somme and they gained a few thousand yards but suffered many causlties. - during the great war, civilians were also war targets. the german zeppelin (hydrogen-filled airship) dropped bombs on people. military leaders on both sides also used blockades to stop food from coming to people which led to starving masses.

- prussian general Helmuth Karl von Moltke predicted that future wars would not end with a single battle but with the breaking of a nation's people. - since patriotism and courage could not guarantee victory, governments of belligerent nations assumed control and eventually militarized civil war production by controlling enterprises and imposing severe discipline on the labor process. these governments abandoned laissez-faire economics and instituted tight controls on economic life. they established wage and price controls, extended work hours, and restricted the movement of workers.

- since men were at war, women were working. some women took over management of farms and business since husbands were gone while other women worked as postal workers or police officers. women were also nurses, physicians, and clerks. **the most crucial work performed by women during the war was the making of shells. but bc women and children were working in these munitions factories, they were exposed to the possibility of explosions and TNT explosives that caused severe poisoning. - midde and upper class women saw war as a liberating experience. the impact of the great war on the lives of working class women was relatively minor. working class women were used to working (duh) and used to earning wages. women's industrial wages did grow during the war but there was still a discrepancy. the extension of voting rights for women also came about shortly after the war. the great war served as a liberating force for women especially in russia and china where the new communist governments discouraged a patriarchal family system

- in order to maintain the spirit, governments restricted civil liberties, censored bad news, and used propaganda to make the enemy worse that it really was. posters, pamphlets, and "scientific" studies showed the enemies as "subhuman savages who engaged in vile atrocities". french called the germans "huns" based on the atrocities they committed in belgium. **public disbelief of wartime propaganda led to an inability to believe in the terrible things that happened during later wars... interesting

- there were 3 reasons for the war's expansion 1) european governments carried their hatred into their colonies 2) the europeans needed more men to fight so they recruited people from their colonies 3)the entrance of other powers like US and Japan into the war did not have to do with the murder in Sarajevo but with other issues - Japan announces to "secure firm and enduring peace in Eastern Asia" on august 15 1914 and sends an ultimatum to germany basically saying that they withdraw their navy from japanese and chinese waters but germans do not comply so the japanese enter the war ON THE SIDE OF THE ALLIES - this is not world war 2 yet. Japanese take possession of german ruled territories in asia and the pacific. - after they seized german territory, japan used their allied support to advance their own interests in china. on January 18 1915 the japanese government presents the chinese government with 21 secret demands. chinese diplomats leaked this to the british who spoke up for china and prevented total capitulation. these demands reflect japan's determination to dominate east Asia and served as a basis for future Japanese pressure on china

- the conquest of german colonies in africa was difficult. germs were more deadly in africa and more people died from disease than from actual battle with the germans. - *the most extensive military operations outside europe took place in southwest asian areas of ottoman empire (ottoman empire sided with central powers). winston churchill (then first lord admiralty of british navy) recommended that the allies strike the ottomans who were a weak ally in order to hurt the germans BUT that did not go well as turkish defenders pinned down the allied troops on the beaches (the allies were trying to land a large force of men on the beaches of the gallipoli peninsula after the allied ships finished bombing). at gallipoli it was mostly canadians, australians, and new zealanders who suffered terrible losses. this day (april 25 1915) in australia is known as Anzac Day (australian and new zealand army corps). **this battle helped launch the political career of the commander of the turkish division that defended gallipoli. that man was Mustafa Kemal who played a large role in forming the modern turkish state

- armenians in the ottoman empire were the last major non-muslim ethnic group under ottoman rule that was seeking autonomy and independence. government abuses against christian armenians were so bad that armenians led demonstrations which then led to stricter government policies against them. ottoman state was adopting a new policy of turkish nationalism and viewed christians as an obstacle to turkism so they deemed the armenians to be an enemy and unleashed murder against them. there were forced mass executions and government organized massacres. this occurred from 1915-1917 and was known as the armenian genocide. the turkish government rejects this label of genocide and says it was not state-sponsored but was a result of warfare perpetuated by muslims and christians, disease, and famine.....BS - after the success at gallipoli (for the ottomans at least) ottoman armies start to slowly retreat on all fronts. but turkish troops were unable to defeat british, french, etc. and these armies received support from an arab revolt against the turks. in 1916 the nomadic bedouin (muhammad was a bedouin herder remember?) of Arabia under Ibn Ali Hussain, sherif of Mecca, and king of the Hejaz rose up against the turkish state. the arab revolt wanted to secure independence from the ottoman empire and create a unified arab nation from syria to yemen BUT british government did not keep its promise of arab independence after the war.

- bc of the immense stress in the Russian nation, the Romanov dynasty was forced to abdicate in favor of a provisional government in spring 1917. resources of the united states (US entered great war in 1917 after germans sunk the Lusitania) compelled the tired central powers to sue for peace in november 1918. - in spring 1917 armies and food shortages provoked a series of demonstrations and strikes in Petrograd (St. Petersburg) and since the police could not suppress these uprisings, Tsar Nicholas ll (part of romanov dynasty) abdicates. this March Revolution was an unplanned and incomplete affair. - revolution spreads and political power goes to provisional government and the Petrograd soviet of Workers' and Soldiers' Deputies. soviets were revolutionary councils organized by socialists. btwn march and november of 1917 the provisional government and petrograd soviet fought for power. the provisional government claimed that it had virtually no power and could do nothing to help the russian state since it could not make fundamental changes like confiscating land and distributing it and it pledged to continue to war because it wanted to be victorious. but petrograd soviet wanted peace, not war, and so they gained the support of the people.

- Vladimir Ilyich Lenin was a revolutionary marxist who was living in exile in switzerland. after his father died, the police hanged his brother for plotting to assassinate the tsar and this influenced Lenin a lot. lenin saw the working class as incapable of having the revolutionary consciousness to attain effective political action and instead lenin thought the proletariat needed a well-organized and highly disciplined party to lead it. the German High Command transported Lenin and other revolutionaries in 1917 to Russia hoping that this would stir up trouble and bring about russia's withdrawal from the war. Lenin led the Bolsheviks who were the radical wing of the Russian Social Democratic Party. - the provisional government's weakness and ineffectiveness made the bolsheviks more popular. the bolshevik slogan was "peace, land, and bread". on november 6 armed workers, soldiers, and sailors storm the winter palace (home of the provisional government) and the next day power passed from the provisional government into lenin and the bolshevik party. it was a bloodless revolution. - bolsheviks end the war by signing the treaty of brest-litovsk on march 3 1918. it gave germans the control of much of russia's territory and the terms were harsh but russia wanted to get out of the war and deal with domestic issues.

- Woodrow Wilson was reelected in 1916 because he campaigned on a nonintervention platform but that changed. b4 the war US economy was struggling and it started to get better by selling war materials to british. allies also took out large loans with american banks which made some americans think that an allied victory would make financial sense. - US government officials always asserted doctrine of neutral rights for american ships because they wanted to keep trading with countries who were at war. BUT germans were sinking merchant ships without a warning and on may 7 1915 a german ship sank the Lusitania which was a british passenger liner and 128 US citizens died. arguably, the ship WAS carrying 4,200 cases of ammunition and traveled through a declared war zone but americans were outraged

- Republican senator George W. Norris argued for neutrality but woodrow wilson started urging congress to declare war and on april 6 1917 US declared war against germany. the entry of US into the war ended the stalemate. - ppl in countries that were fighting in the war got very angry. ex: april 1916 irish nationalists mounted the Great Easter Rebellion which attempted to overthrow british rule in ireland (that did not work). central powers also suffered from food shortages bc of british blockade. mutiny was also common (refusal of soldiers to fight). but germany gambled to throw all its energy into the western front in spring of 1918 but allies broke through. finally germans accept an armistice on November 11 1918.

- right as the war was ending an epidemic was breaking out. no one knows where it came from and why/how it went away. *the disease killed more people than the actual war did and it hit young adults (which was typically a group that was not severely affected by influenza). people today call it the Spanish flu because the first documented case of the disease was in spain in late 1918. wartime traffic on land & sea probably caused the spread of the infection. - *the pacific islands suffered the worst of all as the flu wiped out up to 25% of its population. the spanish flu was an equal opportunity killer. there was no cure for the flu of 1918. - paris settlement: bc the 27 nations represented had different and conflicting aims, the conference deteriorated into pandemonium. Georges Clemenceau (France) Woodrow Wilson (USA) and Lloyd George (Britain) were the front-runners. the allies did not allow representatives from the central powers. also the Soviet Union was not invited. - Woodrow wilson proposed his Fourteen Points as a basis for the armistice. the idealism expressed in this proposal was nice and made wilson the moral leader and the defeated powers felt betrayed bc the harsh peace treaties contained little (if any) of wilson's principles from the Fourteen Points.

- the harshest terms came from the french who wanted to destroy the germans. Treaty of Versailles denied the germans a navy and air force and limited the size of the army to 100,000. allies prohibit germany and austria from forming a political union. also the treaty of versailles was arguably no more severe than the terms of the treaty of brest-litovsk imposed on russia by the germans. - Bulgaria accepts the Treaty of Neuilly which takes away small portions of its territory. Treaty of St. Germain was between the allies and republic of austria, Treaty of Trianon was between allies and kingdom of hungary. austria and hungary suffer territorial losses. Treaty of Sevres dissolves the ottoman empire and calls for the surrender of ottoman balkan and arab provinces and occupation of southern and eastern anatolia by foreign power. turkish nationalists did NOT like this treaty and the wartime hero Mustafa Kemal set out to defy the allied terms. he organized a national army that drove out allied troops and abolished the sultanate and replaced it with the republic with turkey as its capital. allied powers officially recognized the republic of turkey in the Treaty of Lausanne.

- Mustafa Kemal became known as Ataturk (father of the turks) and started to modernize the state. he emphaiszed economic development and secularism. they also emancipated women and gave them the right to vote. Ataturk ruled turkey as a dictator until he died in 1938. - to avoid future conflicts, diplomats create league of nations. at woodrow wilson's urging, the league of nations was made an integral part of the peace treaties and everyone who signed the treaty had to recognize this new organization. league had two major problems 1) it had no power to enforce its decisions 2) it relied on "collective security" as a tool for preserving global peace. **the united states never joined the organization because the US senate rejected the idea. but the league of nations served as a model for the united nations.

- self-determination (promoted by woodrow wilson) was one of the central themes of peacemaking process. but in some places self-determination was not happening like in austria and germany where people were denied the right to form one nation. ex: in czechoslovakia the Czechs and Slovaks were the most populous ethnic groups and there were many many others. the creation of Yugoslavia ("land of the south slavs") was a triumph for self-determination because it united related peoples. - the victors of the war had to confront the issue of what to do with germany's former colonies and arab territories of the ottoman empire. so they came up with the idea of trusteeship. the league divided the mandates into 3 classes based on their development and the administration of these powers fell to the victorious allies. but germans and ottomans did not like this (in fact the establishment of mandates in old ottoman empire territories violated promises made to the arabs by britsh and french during the war (remember the british promised arabs independence from ottoman empire and also promised the jews a homeland in palestine).

- the great war accelerated the growth of nationalism in european controlled areas and fueled desires for independence and self-determination. - the most significant economic consequence was the loss of overseas investments and foreign markets. also the economic relationship between europe and the US reversed. by 1919 the US was a major creditor. - the war helped spread revolutionary ideas. nationalists drew inspiration from the soviet union who denounced all forms of imperialism and pledged their support to independence movements.