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Body Changes

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The body and brain develop according to powerful epigenetic forces. • biologically driven • socially guided • experience-expectant • experience-dependent

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From age 2 to 6:

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• become slimmer as lower body lengthens • baby fat is replaced by muscle • gain about 4 1/2 pounds/year • add 3 inches to height/year

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Growth is influencd by:

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• SES • Genes • Nutrition • Psychological factors (3,4,5)

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A typical 6-year-old:

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• between 40 & 50 pounds • at least 3 1/2 feet tall • lean, not chubby • Legs make up about ½ of body proportion.

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Eating Habits

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• appetite decreases • young children need far fewer calories per pound of body weight

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Nutritional Deficiencies

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• Most children in developed nations consume more than enough calories. • not always adequate iron, zinc, & calcium • consumption of calcium lower than 20 years ago • less milk • more soda • Origins of obesity can start in preschool years.

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sugar problems

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• Many cultures encourage children to eat sweets. • birthday cake, candy, desserts, other treats

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"Just Right" Phenomenon

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• Routines are very important to preschoolers, who often become rigid and appear obsessive-compulsive. • This is normal and requires patience and accomodation within limits. • Peaks at 3 years, decreases in 4 and 5 year olds.

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Brain Development

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• Brains grow rapidly before birth and throughout infancy. • By age 2 most neurons are connected to other neurons. • substantial pruning of dendrites has occurred (6,6A) • 2-year-old brain weighs 75 percent of what it will weigh in adulthood.

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Prefrontal cortex (outer layers)

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performs brains "executive functions" - planning, selecting, and coordinating thoughts

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Auditory cortex (on temporal lobe)

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conscious processing of sounds

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Amygdala

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neural centers in the limbic system linked to emotion

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Hippocampus

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a structure in the limbic system linked to memory

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Corpus callosum

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axon fibers connecting two cerebral hemispheres

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Thalamus

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relays messages between lower brain centers and cerebral cortex

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hypothalamus

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controls maintenance functions such as eating; helps govern endocrine system; linked to emotion and reward

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pituitary

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master endocrine gland

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visual cortex (on occipital lobe)

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conscious processing of sights

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spinal cord

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pathways for neural fibers traveling to and from brain; controls simple reflexes

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cerebellum

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coordinates voluntary movement and balance

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cerebral cortex (outer layers)

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ultimate control and information-processing center

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Speed of Thought

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Proliferation of the communication pathways (dendrites and axons) results in brain growth. But most growth occurs because of myelination.

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myelination

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process by which axons become coated with myelin, a fatty substance, that speeds the transmission of nerve impulses from neuron to neuron

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corpus callosum

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long band of nerve fibers that connect the left and right hemispheres of the brain

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prefrontal cortex

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area in the front part of the brain's outer layer under the forehead • underlies higher-order cognition • planning and complex forms of goal-directed behavior

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Maturation of the Prefrontal Cortex

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maturation of the prefrontal cortex from ages 2 to 6: • sleep becomes more regular • emotions become more nuanced and responsive to specific stimuli • temper tantrums subside • uncontrollable laughter and tears become less common

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Neurons have two kinds of impulses:

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• to activate (act) • to inhibit (not act)

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The Limbic System

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controls expression and emotion regulation.

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3 major areas of The Limbic System

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• amygdala • hippocampus • Hypothalamus

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Artistic Expression

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• Artistic expression blossoms during early childhood. • Maturation of brain and body is gradual and comes with practice. Young children are: • Imaginative • creative • not yet self-critical

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Injuries and Abuse

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• More children die of violence, either accidental or deliberate, than from any other cause. Annually in the U.S., out of 100,000 1 to 4-year-olds (2004): • 10.9 die accidentally • 2.5 die of cancer • 2.4 are murdered

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Avoidable injury

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• Teenagers and young adults are most often killed as passengers or drivers in motor-vehicle crashes. • Falls are more often fatal for the very young (under 24 months) and very old (over 80 years) than for preschoolers, for whom fatal accidents are more likely to involve poison, fire, choking, or drowning.

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Warning Signs of Maltreatment

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delayed development such as: • slow growth • immature communication • lack of curiosity • unusual social interaction

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post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD)

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delayed reaction to trauma or shock • hyperactivity • hyper-vigilance • displaced anger • sleeplessness • sudden terror • anxiety • confusion w/ fantasy & reality

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Consequences of Maltreatment

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• Impact of any child-rearing practice is affected by the cultural context Certain customs considered abusive in some cultures but not in others. • circumcision • pierced ears • spanking • Children suffer if parents seem not to love them according to their community's standards for parental love.

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permanency planning

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An effort by child welfare authorities to find a long-term living situation that will provide stability and support for a maltreated child. A goal is to avoid repeated changes of caregiver or school, which can be particularly harmful to the child.

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foster care

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A legal, publicly supported system in which a maltreated child is removed from the parents' custody and entrusted to another adult or family, which is reimbursed for expenses incurred in meeting the child's needs.

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kinship care

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A form of foster care in which a relative of a maltreated child, usually a grandparent, becomes the approved caregiver.

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adoption

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legal proceeding in which an adult or couple unrelated to a child is granted joys and obligations of being child's parent.

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Myelination

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The process by which axons become coated with myelin, a fatty substance that speeds the transmission of nerve impulses from neuron to neuron.

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Amygdala

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A tiny brain structure that registers emotions, particularly fear and anxiety.

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Perseveration

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The tendency to persevere in, or stick to, one thought or action for a long time.

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child neglect

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Failure to meet a child's basic physical, educational, or emotional needs.

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child maltreatment

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Intentional harm to or avoidable endangerment of anyone under 18 years of age.

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child abuse

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Deliberate action that is harmful to a child's physical, emotional, or sexual well-being.

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tertiary prevention

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Actions, such as immediate and effective medical treatment, that are taken after an adverse event (such as illness or injury) occurs and that are aimed at reducing the harm or preventing disability.

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lateralization

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Literally, sidedness, referring to the specialization in certain functions by each side of the brain, with one side dominant for each activity. The left side of the brain controls the right side of the body, and vice versa.

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hypothalamus

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A brain area that responds to the amygdala and the hippocampus to produce hormones that activate other parts of the brain and body.

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hippocampus

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A brain structure that is a central processor of memory, especially memory for locations & memories of fears.

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secondary prevention

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Actions that avert harm in a high-risk situation, such as stopping a car before it hits a pedestrian.

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primary prevention

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Actions that change overall background conditions to prevent some unwanted event or circumstance, such as injury, disease, or abuse.

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corpus callosum

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A long, thick band of nerve fibers that connects the left and right hemispheres of the brain and allows communication between them.

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substantiated maltreatment

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Harm or endangerment that has been reported, investigated, and verified.

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reported maltreatment

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Harm or endangerment about which someone has notified the authorities.

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injury control/harm reduction

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Practices that are aimed at anticipating, controlling, and preventing dangerous activities; these practices reflect the beliefs that accidents are not random and that injuries can be made less harmful if proper controls are in place.

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1. The body mass index (BMI, the ratio of weight to height):

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is lower at age 5 than at any other age in the life span.

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2. A 2004 study of 2-to 4-year-olds from low-income families living in New York City found many children were:

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overweight

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3. According to the text, what is the most common disease of young children in developed nations?

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tooth decay

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4. When a young child insists that his or her potatoes be placed on a certain part of the dinner plate, he or she is exhibiting:

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the "just-right" phenomenon

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5. The 2-year-old brain weighs ________ percent of what it will weigh in adulthood.

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75

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6. Another term for lateralization is:

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sidedness

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7. Which of the following most directly contributes to improved motor coordination in early childhood?

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myelination of the corpus callosum

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8. Which of the following is controlled by the left half of the brain?

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logical reasoning

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9. One of the benefits of the maturation of the prefrontal cortex that occurs from the ages of 2 to 6 is:

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more regular sleep.

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10. The ___________ produces hormones that activate other parts of the brain and body.

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hypothalamus

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11. An example of a gross motor skill is:

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pumping a swing.

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12. According to sociocultural theory, children learn gross motor skills best from:

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peers.

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13. The most common cause of death in childhood is:

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accidents

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14. Tertiary prevention begins _____ an injury.

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after

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15. Failure to meet a child's basic physical, educational, or emotional needs is the definition of:

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child neglect.

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16. By age 6, the average child in a developed nation weighs between _______ pounds and is at least ______ feet tall.

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40 and 50; 3 1/2

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17. The major nutritional deficit in early childhood in DEVELOPED countries is insufficient:

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iron, zinc, and calcium.

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18. The "just-right" phenomenon:

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refers to young children's insistence on routine.

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19. A child's insistence on routine typically peaks at around age:

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3.

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20. By age 6 the brain weighs ________ percent of what it will weigh in adulthood.

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90

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21. The _________ allows communication between the two hemispheres of the brain.

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corpus callosum

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22. The specialization in certain functions by each side of the brain is:

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lateralization

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23. Most people:

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use both sides of the brain for all cognitive functions.

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24. Which area is said to be the "executive" of the brain?

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prefrontal cortex

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25. Perseveration is the opposite of:

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impulsiveness

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26. Environmental hazards such as pollution interfere with the development of ______________.

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motor skills

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27. Which of these statements is consistent with the notion of injury control?

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Appropriate controls can minimize harm.

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28. Laws limiting the number of baby aspirins per container are an example of ___________ prevention.

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primary

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29. We recognize today that child abuse or maltreatment is:

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usually perpetrated by the child's parents.

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30. A primary-prevention measure to reduce child abuse would be to:

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decrease financial instability.

Ch. 8 PSY 330 – Infant and Child Development – Flashcards

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