Ch 4 – Flashcard Test Questions

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TABLE 4.1 The Nature-Nurture Debate NATURE Human development is ... Innate Biological, physiological Due largely to heredity Fairly fixed NURTURE Human development is ... Learned Psychological, social, cultural Due largely to environment Fairly changeable

[sex change/correction at birth] Most sociologists agree that nature affects human development. They maintain, however, that nurture is more significant than nature because socialization and culture shape even biological inputs. Some scientists propose that biological factors—especially the brain—play an important role in our development. A study of brain scans, for example, suggests that increased activity in a region of the brain (the ventromedial prefrontal cortex) a few inches behind the bridge of the nose may predispose people to have a negative outlook on life. Research suggests that when activity in this region of the brain increases, people tend to be more anxious, irritable, angry, and unpleasant (Vedantam 2002). It's not clear, however, why many people have high brain activity yet remain calm, friendly, and pleasant.

Charles Horton Cooley: Emergence of the Self and the Looking -Glass Self The sense of self, then, is not innate but emerges out of social relationships. Cooley called this social self the reflected self , or the looking -glass self , a self-image based on how we think others see us.

Phase 1: Perception. We imagine how we appear to other people and how they perceive us ("She thinks I'm attractive," or "I bet he thinks I'm fat."). Phase 2: Interpretation of the perception. We imagine how others judge us ("She's impressed with me," or "He's disgusted with the way I look."). Phase 3: Response. We experience self-feelings based on what we regard to be others' judgments of us. If we think others see us in a favorable light, we may feel proud, happy, or self-confident ("I'm terrific."). If we think others see us in a negative light, we may feel angry, embarrassed, or insecure ("I'm pathetic.").

Cooley described how an individual's sense of self emerges, but not how it develops. George Herbert Mead, one of Cooley's colleagues, took up this task. For Mead (1934), the most critical social interaction occurs in the family, the foundation of socialization.

1. Preparatory stage (roughly birth to 2 years). An infant doesn't distinguish between the self and others. The I is dominant, while the me is forming in the background. In this stage, children learn through imitation. They may mimic daddy's shaving or mommy's angry tone of voice without really understanding the parent's behavior. In this exploratory stage, children engage in behavior that they rarely associate with words or symbols, but they begin to understand cause and effect (e.g., crying leads to being picked up). Gradually, as the child begins to recognize others' reactions (to form a looking -glass self ), he or she develops a self .

2. Play stage (roughly 2-6 years). The child begins to use language and understand that words (like dog and cat) have a shared cultural meaning. Through play, children begin to learn role taking in two ways. First, they emulate the words and behavior of significant others , the people who are important in one's life, such as parents or other primary caregivers and siblings. The child learns that he or she has a self that is distinct from that of others, that others behave in many different ways, and that others expect her or him to behave in specific ways. In other words, the child learns social norms (see Chapter 3). In the play stage, the child moves beyond imitation and acts out imagined roles ("I'll be the mommy and you be the daddy."). The play stage involves relatively simple role taking because the child plays one role at a time and doesn't yet understand the relationships between roles. This stage is crucial, according to Mead, because the child is learning to take the role of the other. For the first time, the child tries to imagine how others behave or feel. The me grows stronger because the child is concerned about the judgments of significant others. Also in the play stage, children experience anticipatory socialization , the process of learning how to perform a role they don't occupy. By playing "mommy" or "daddy," children prepare themselves for eventually becoming parents. Anticipatory socialization continues in later years, for example, when expectant parents attend childbirth classes, job seekers practice their skills in mock interviews, and many high-school students visit campuses and attend orientation meetings to prepare for college life.

3. Game stage (roughly 6 years and older). This stage involves acquiring the ability to understand connections between roles. The child must "not only take the role of the other...but must assume the various roles of all participants in the game, and govern his action accordingly" (Mead 1964: 285). Mead used baseball to illustrate this stage. In baseball (or other organized games and activities), the child plays one role at a time (such as batter) but understands and anticipates the actions of other players (pitcher, shortstop, runners on bases) on both teams. As children grow older and interact with a wider range of people, they learn to respond to and fulfill a variety of social roles. The game stage enables understanding and taking the role of the generalized other , people who don't have close ties to a child but who influence her or his internalization of society's norms and values. The generalized other, then, exerts control over the I and ensures some predictability in life. For sociologists, the development of the generalized other is a central feature of the socialization process because the me becomes an integral part of the self (see Figure 4.1). After the generalized other has developed, the me never fully controls the I, even in adulthood. We sometimes break rules or act impulsively, even though we know better. Or, when we are frustrated or angry, we may lash out against other people even though they haven't done anything wrong.

Cooley and Mead described how the self and role taking emerge and develop during early socialization. Erving Goffman (1959, 1969) extended these analyses by showing that we interact differently in different settings throughout adulthood. Goffman proposed that social life mirrors the theater because we are like actors: We engage in "role performances," want to influence an "audience," and can have considerable control over the image that we project while we're "on stage."

In a process that Goffman called impression management , we provide information and cues to others to present ourselves in a favorable light while downplaying or concealing our less appealing qualities. Being successful in this presentation of the self requires managing three types of expressive resources. [As we move from one situation to another, according to Goffman, we maintain self-control, for example, by avoiding emotional outbursts and altering our facial expressions and verbal tones. Thus, all of us engage in impression management practically every day.]

First, we try to control the setting, the physical space, or "scene," where the interaction takes place. In the classroom, "a professor may use items such as chalk, lecture notes, computers, videos, and desks to facilitate a class and show that he or she is an excellent teacher"

A second expressive resource is controlling appearance, such as clothing and titles that convey information about our social status. When physicians or professors use the title "Doctor," for example, they are telling the "audience" to respond to them respectfully.

The third expressive resource is manner—the mood or style of behavior we display that sends important messages to the audience. For example, faculty members regularly manage their manner when interacting with students. When you e-mail a professor a question about your research project, the response is usually inviting ("I'll be happy to discuss your project.") even though the professor may actually be annoyed ("Your project has nothing to do with this course; stop wasting my time.").

Key Elements of Socialization Theories SOCIAL LEARNING THEORIES -Social interaction is important in learning appropriate and inappropriate behavior. -Socialization relies on direct and indirect reinforcement. Example: Children learn how to behave when they are scolded or praised for specific behaviors. SYMBOLIC INTERACTION THEORIES -The self emerges through social interaction with significant others. -Socialization includes role taking and controlling the impression we give to others. Example: Children who are praised are more likely to develop a strong self-image than those who are always criticized.

The family, peer groups, teachers, and the media are some of the primary agents of socialization —the individuals, groups, or institutions that teach us what we need to know to participate effectively in society.

Parents, siblings, grandparents, and other family members play a critical role in our socialization. Parents, however, are the first and most influential socialization agents. In teaching their children social rules and roles, parents rely on several of the learning techniques such as reinforcement, to encourage desired behavior. Parents also manage many aspects of the environment that influence a child's social development: They choose the neighborhood (which often determines what school a child attends), decorate the child's room in a masculine or feminine style, provide her or him with particular toys and books, and arrange social events and other activities (such as sports, art, and music) to enrich the child's development.

In authoritarian parenting, parents tend to be harsh, unresponsive, and rigid, and to use their power to control a child's behavior. Authoritative parenting is warm, responsive, and involved yet unobtrusive. Parents set reasonable limits and expect appropriately mature behavior from their children. Permissive parenting is lax: Parents set few rules but are usually warm and responsive. Uninvolved parenting is indifferent and neglectful. Parents focus on their own needs rather than those of the children, spend little time interacting with the children, and know little about their interests or whereabouts

All of us are members of peer groups, but such groups are especially influential until about our mid-20s. First, play promotes cognitive development. Whether it's doing simple five-piece puzzles or tackling complex video games like Sim City and Roller Coaster Tycoon, play encourages children to think, formulate strategies, and budget and manage resources. From an early age, however, play is generally gender typed. In 2008, the top-selling toys for girls were Barbie dolls, followed by Hannah Montana games, generic dolls, and Nintendo Wii, a video game console. The top-selling toys for boys were video games, followed by Nintendo Wii, Lego, cars, and Transformers (Stead 2008).

Second, play—especially when it's structured—keeps children out of trouble and enhances their social development. For example, children who devote more of their free time to structured and supervised activities—such as hobbies and sports—rather than just hanging out with their friends, perform better academically, are emotionally better adjusted, and have fewer problems at school and at home. In effect, sports and hobbies provide children with constructive ways to channel their energy and intelligence (McHale 2001).

Third, play can strengthen peer relationships. Beginning in elementary school, few things are more important to most children than being accepted by their peers. Even if children aren't popular, belonging to a friendship group enhances their psychological well-being and ability to cope with stress (Rubin et al. 1998; Scarlett et al. 2005).

Peer influence usually increases as children get older. Especially during the early teen years, peers often reinforce desirable behavior or skills in ways that enhance a child's self-image ("Wow, you're really good in math!"). In this sense, to use Cooley's concept, peers can help each other develop a positive looking-glass self. Peers also serve as positive role models. Peers can also teach new skills. A child who's talented in art may help a school-mate during art class, and one who's good in sports may teach others how to control a soccer ball or hold a baseball bat properly. Not all peer influence is positive, however. Some cliques encourage high-risk behavior that includes sexual activity, smoking, drinking alcohol, and using other drugs. In most cases, however, peer acceptance (whether one is a jock, a computer geek, or a reporter on the yearbook staff) promotes friendship and a sense of fitting in. Thus, peer groups can be important sources of support for teens and increase their self-esteem

teachers play numerous roles in the classroom—instructor, role model, evaluator, moral guide, and disciplinarian, to name just a few. Once children enter school, their relationships with their teachers are important for academic success. Kindergarten and elementary-school teachers' reports of behavioral problems (such as unexcused absences) and poor grades often continue into the middle school years

Parenting Styles Authoritarian- Very demanding, controlling, punitive "You can't borrow the car because I said so." Authoritative- Demanding, controlling, warm, supportive "You can borrow the car, but be home by curfew." Permissive- Not demanding, warm, indulgent, set few rules "Borrow the car whenever you want." Uninvolved- Neither supportive nor controlling "I don't care what you do; I'm busy."