question

The freshly oxygenated blood transported from the lungs is 1st received by the?

answer

Left Atrium

question

Given an end-diastolic volume of 150 ml, an end-systolic volume of 50 ml, and a heart rate of 60bpm, the cardiac output is?

answer

6 L/min

question

Which of the following depolarizes next after the AV node?

answer

AV bundle

question

During atrial systole

answer

The atrial pressure exceeds ventricular pressure; the AV valves are open

question

Atrial repolarization coincides in time with the

answer

QRS wave

question

Soon after the onset of ventricular systole, the

answer

AV valves close; 1st heart sound is heard

question

The base of the heart is its ___ surface.

answer

superior

question

In comparing a parallel artery and vein, you would find that?

answer

The artery wall is thicker; The artery lumen is smaller

question

Which of these vessels is bilaterally symmetrical (i.e. one vessel of the pair occurs on each side of the body)?

answer

Internal Carotid artery

question

A stroke that occludes a posterior cerebral artery will most likely affect?

answer

Vision

question

Vessels involved in the circulatory pathway to &/or from the brain are the?

answer

Brachiocephalic, Internal Jugular Vein, Internal carotid artery

question

Which layer of the artery wall thickens most in atherosclerosis?

answer

Tunica Intima

question

Which of the following are associated with aging?

answer

Increasing BP; Weakening of venous valves; Arteriosclerosis

question

An increase in BP would be caused by all of the following?

answer

Increase in SV; Increase in Heart Rate; Vasoconstriction of the arterioles

question

The most external part of the pericardium is the?

answer

Fibrous pericardium

question

Which heart chamber pumps blood with the greatest amount of force?

answer

Left Ventricle

question

How many cusps does the right atrioventricular valve have?

answer

3

question

Which layer of the hear wall is an endothelium?

answer

Endocardium

question

Diagram of heart: chambers, AV valves, semilunar valves, all blood vessels

answer

pg 337

question

Trace one drop of blood from the time it enters the R-atrium of the heart until it enters the L-atrium. What is this circuit called?

answer

-R-Atrium, R-Ventricle, pulmonary trunk, R & L-pulmonary arteries, pulmonary capillaries of the lung, R & L-pulmonary veins, left atrium of the heart. -Called: Pulmonary circuit or Pulmonary circulation.

question

What is the function of the fluid that fills the pericardial sac?

answer

The pericardial (serous) fluid acts as lubricant to decrease friction as the heart beats

question

Systole? Diastole?

answer

-Systole: Period of contraction of the heart (refers to ventricular contraction) -Diastole: Period of relaxation of the heart musculature -Cardiac Cycle: The time for 1 complete heartbeat, from the beginning of one systole to the beginning of the next

question

Stroke Volume?

answer

The amount of blood pumped out by a ventricle with each contraction

question

How does the hearts ability to contract differ from that of other muscles of the body?

answer

The heart has a intrinsic ability to beat (contract), which is different from all other muscles in body. Where as the nervous system may increase/decrease in rate, the heart continues to beat even if all nervous connections are cut, albeit at a slower rate. -There are differences in rate btw atrial & ventricular contraction, in the abscense of nervous system supervision.

question

Name the elements of the intrinsic conduction system, in order, beginning with the pacemaker.

answer

SA node (Pacemaker), AV node, AV bundle (Bundle of His), bundle branches, Purkinge fibers.

question

3 Factors that increase heart rate.

answer

Activity of the sympathetic nervous system (during physical or emotional stress), excess or lack of certain vital ions, increased temp., hormones (epinephrin, thyroxine), sudden drop in blood volume, age, gender, exercise

question

Name & describe from the inside out the 3 tunics making up the walls of the arteries & veins, and give the most important function of each layer.

answer

-Tunica Intima: A single layer of squamous epithelium; Provides a smooth, friction-reducing lining for the vessel -Tunica Media: A middle layer, consisting of smooth muscle & connective tissue (primarily elastic fibers). Elastic fibers allow for stretching & then passive recoil of vessels close to the heart, which are subjected to pressure fluctuations; The smooth muscle is activated by the sympathetic nervous system when vasoconstriction (and increases in BP is desired). -Tunica Externa: The outermost layer, made of fibrous connective tissue; Basically a protective and supporting layer

question

Describe sturcture of capillary walls.

answer

Are essentially just the tunica intima (endothelium plus the basement membrane); They are exceedingly thin.

question

Why are artery walls so much thicker than those of corresponding veins?

answer

Arteries are much closer to the pumping action of the heart and must be able to withstand the pressure fluctuations at such locations. Veins, on the distal side of the capillary beds of the tissues, are essentially low pressure vessels that need less strength/support/elasticity than do arteries.

question

Name 3 factors that are important in promoting venous return.

answer

The presence of valves, the milking action of skeletal muscles against the veins as the muscles contract, the respiratory pump (pressure changes in the thorax during breathing)

question

Arteries are often described as vessels that carry oxygen-rich blood, and veins are said to carry oxygen-poor (carbon dioxide-rich) blood. Name 2 sets of exceptions to this rule?

answer

-Pulmonary Arteries: Carry oxygen-poor blood -Pulmonary veins: Carry oxygen-rich blood -Umbilical Arteries: Carry oxygen poor blood from the fetus -Umbilical Veins: Caries oxygen rich blood to the fetus

question

Trace a drop of blood from the L-ventricle of the heart to the wrist of the R-hand & back to the heart. -Trace it to the dorsum of the right foot and back to the R-heart.

answer

-R-Wrist: Left ventricle, ascending aorta, aortic arch, brachiocephalic artery, subclavian artery, axiallary artery, brachial artery, radial (or ulnar) artery, capillary network of wrist, radial (or ulnar) vein, brachial vein, axillary vein, subclavian vein, R-brachiocephalic vein, superior vena cava, right atrium of heart. -R-Foot: Left ventricle, ascending aorta, aortic arch, descending aorta, right common iliac artery, external iliac artery, femoral artery, popliteal artery, anterior tibial artery, dorsalis pedis artery, capillary network, anterior tibial vein, popliteal vein, femoral vein, external iliac vein, common iliac vein, inferior vena cava, R-atrium. (Alternativly, the sequence btw the capillary network & external iliac vein could be stated as: dorsal venous arch to great saphaneous vein)

question

Function of the hepatic portal circulation? In what way is a portal ciculation a "strang" circulation?

answer

-Hepatic Portal circulation- carries nutrient rich blood from the digestive viscera to the liver for processing before the blood enterms the systemic circulation. A portal ciculation involves a capillary bed that is both fed & drained by veins. - The usual circulation has a capillary bed thats fed by arteries and drained by veins

question

-In a fetus, the liver & lungs are mostly entirely bypassed by blood. Why is this? Name the vessel that bypasses the liver.Name 2 lung bypasses. -3 Vessels travel in the umbilical cord; which of thes carries oxygen and nutrient rich blood?

answer

-In fetus, liver and lungs are nonfunctional (the liver relativly so). Ductus venosus bypasses the liver. Ductus arteriosus & foramen ovale bypass the lungs. -The umbilical vein carries nutrient-rich & oxygen-rich blood to the fetus throug the umbilical cord

question

Pulse? Palpate your pulse, which pulse point did you use?

answer

-Pulse: The extension and recoil of an artery that occur with each heartbeat. -Arterial Pulse Points: Temporal artery, facial artery, common carotid artery, brachial artery, radial artery, femoral artery, popliteal artery, posterior tibial artery, dorsalis pedis artery,

question

Which artery is palpated in the front of the ear? At back of knee?

answer

-Front of Ear: Temporal Artery -Back of knee: Popliteal

question

Systolic Pressure? Diastolic pressure?

answer

-Systolic Pressure: Pressure exerted by blood on the arterial walls during ventricular contraction. -Diastolic Pressure: Pressure exerted by blood on the arterial walls when the ventricles are relaxing (during diastole).

question

2 Elements determine BP- cardiac output (CO) of the heart & the peripheral resistence (PR)/friction in the blood vessels. -Name 2 factors that increase cardiac output? Name 2 factors that increase peripheral resistence?

answer

-Cardiac Output is increased by: Increased venous return; Increased heart rate -Peripheral Resistance is increased by: Decreased diameter of blood vessels & increased blood viscosity. *Cardiac Output= Amount of blood pumped out of left ventricle per minute) *Peripheral Resistance= Amount of friction the blood encounters as it flows through the blood vessels. * BP=CO X PR

question

In which position (sitting, lying down, standing) is BP normally highest? Lowest?

answer

-Highest: In the recumbent position (lying down) -Lowest: Immediatly after standing up -The sympathetic nervous system quickly compensates in healthy individs. Often, you can become hypotensive after sitting for an extended period of time.

question

Difference btw capillary exchanges seen in a capillary with fenestrations & intercellular clefts and the exchanges seen in a capillary lacking those modifications?

answer

-Intracellular clefts allow limited passage of solutes and fluids. -Fenestrated capillaries allow very free passage of small solutes and fluids. -Capillaries lacking these modifications are relatively impermeable to large substances such as protein molecules or blood cells, but permeable to lipid-soluble molecules.

question

Varicose veins? What factors promote their formation?

answer

-Veins that become twisted & dilated bcuz of incompetent valves. Inactivity (lack of skeletal milking activity against the veins) allows the blood to pool in the lower extremities . -Increased pressure that restricts venous return (ex: pregnancy & obesity)

question

Why blood flow in arteries is pulsatile and blow flow in veins is not.

answer

-Blood flow in arteries is pulsatile bcuz its under greater amount of pressure compared to veins. Arteries are located closer to ventricles, so their walls must be capable of expanding and contracting under the changes in pressure when the ventricles contract. -When blood reaches veins, the prssure is very low, and so instead of veins having a pulsatile ability to maintain pressure, they instead have valves to prevent backflow.

question

What's the relationship btw cross-sectional area of a blood vessel & velocity (speed) of blood flow in that vessel?

answer

The greater the cross-sectional area in a blood-vessel the faster that blood can flow through that vessel. Smaller valves, like capillaries, are only one cell thick in diameter, which slows down blood flow and allows nutrient & gas exchange to occur.

question

Which type of blood vessel is most important in regulating vascular resistance, and how does it achieve this?

answer

Arterioles are blood vessels that are most important in regulating vascular resistance. These vessels can constrict as result of activity from the sympathetic nervous system, which alters blood pressure. -Atherosclerosis in these vessels also causes narrowing due to plaque deposits, which also affect blood pressure.

question

30yr old John is overweight & smokes. Hes diagnosed w/hypertension & arteriosclerosis(define them). How they related?

answer

-Hypertension: Abnormally high BP (generally described as systolic pressure above consistently over 140 mmHG & diastolic pressure over 90 mmHG in younger adults). -Arteriosclersosis: "hardening of the arteries", the result of deposit of fatty-cholesterol substances & calcium salts onto the inner walls of blood vessels. -Arteriosclerosis can be a direct cause of hypertension bcuz it decreases the elasticity of the arteries (thereby increasing the peripheral resistance). -Hypertension is called the "silent killer" bcuz it initially progresses w/o obvious symptoms -3 Lifestyle changes to prevent cardiovascular disease in your old age: Regular exercise, Diet low in saturated fats & salt, and Decrease in stress (stop smoking).

question

Ms.Ramirez (middle age woman) admitted to critical care w/ left ventricular failure resulting from myocardial infarction. She awoke in middle of night w/chest pain. Her skin is pale & cold & moist sounds of pulmonary edema are heard over the lower regions of both lungs. -Explain how failure of left ventricle causes these symptoms and signs.

answer

-She has pulmonary edema. The right side of heart is still sending blood to the lungs,but the left side of heart (the systemic pump) isn't pumping blood entering its chamber (from the pulmonary cicuit) to the systemic circulation. -As the pressure increases in the pulmonary vessels, they become leaky, and fluid enters the tissue spaces of the lungs

question

Linda (14 yr old) has a loud heart murmur at the 2nd intercoastal space on the left side of the sternum. -The murmur takes the form of a swishing sound w/no high-pitched whistle. What is producing the murmur?

answer

Incompetence (not stenosis) of the pulmonary semilunar valve. Incompetent valves produce swishing sounds, & pulmonary semilunar valve is heard @ the superior left corner of the heart.

question

Ms. Ramirez is brought into ER after car accident. Shes's hemorrhaging & has a rapid, thready pulse, but her BP is w/in normal limits. -Describe the compensatory mechanisms that are maintaining her BP in the face of blood loss.

answer

-This include: the increase in heart rate & intense vasoconstriction, which allows blood in various blood reservoirs to be quickly added to the major circulatory channels.

question

During a lethal heart attack, a blood clot lodges in the 1st part of the circumflex branch of the left coronary artery, blocking blood flow through this vessel. -What part of the heart will become ischemic & die?

answer

The left atrium & posterior portion of the left ventricle.

question

Mr.Troyer diagnosed w/ posterior pituitary tumor that causes hypersecretion of ADH. (he gets BP checked regularyl) -Would his BP be chronically elevated/depressed?

answer

Chronically elevated due to increased blood volume. ADH (antidiuretic hormone) promotes retention of water by the kidneys.

question

Why swimming vigourously immediatly after lunch is likely to cause indigestion than cramping of your muslces?

answer

Blood flow is increased in areas of need & decresed to areas of non-need due to constriction & dilation of arterioles as blood will flow down pathway of least resistance. -Competition for blood flow btw the GI tract, which needs more blood circulation for absorbtion, and the skeletal muscles which simultaneously need more blood for exercise, will cause indigestion most likely than muscle cramping.

question

Guards stand outside for hrs. On hot days some become lightheaded & faint. Explain?

answer

Standing erect for long periods enables gravity to pool blood in lower extremities, particularyl in abscence of muscle pump activity which increaes venous return during movement. -Reduction in venous return causes reduction in stroke volume, causing lightheadedness as blood flow to the brain is reduced. -Standing in hot enviroment also produce sweating, vasodilation & reduction of blood plasma, which decreases stroke volume.

question

Which leads to increased erythropoiese?

answer

Chronic bleeding ulcer; Reduction in respiratory ventilation; Reduced blood flow to the kidneys

question

Sickling of RBCs can be induced in a person with sickel cell anemia by?

answer

Blood loss; Vigorous exercise; Fever; Stress

question

A child is diagnose with sickle cell anemis. This means?

answer

Both parents carried the sickle cell gene

question

Polycythemia vera will result in?

answer

Abnormally low hematocrit

question

Which of the following is typical of leukocytes?

answer

Amoeboid movement; Phagocytic (some); Nucleated

question

The leukocyte that releases histamine and other inflammatory chemicals is the ?

answer

Basophil

question

All of these formed elements are phagolytic?

answer

Neutrophils; Monocytes

question

A condition resulting from thrombocytopenia is?

answer

Petechiae

question

Which of the following can cause problems in a tranfusion reaction?

answer

Clogging of small vessels by agglutinated clumps of RBC; Lysis of donated RBC; Blockage of kidney tubules

question

If Rh- mother becomes pregnant, when can hemolytic disease of the newborn NOT possibly occur in a child?

answer

Answer:If the child is Rh-; If the father is Rh- Incorrect: If child is Rh+; If father is Rh+

question

Plasma without the clotting protein is called?

answer

Serum

question

Albumin?

answer

Helps maintain bloods osmotic pressure; Transports certain molecules.

question

What is the blood volume of an average adult?

answer

5-6 Liters (approx 6 quarts)

question

Name the different categories of substances carried in the plasma.

answer

-Respiratory gases (oxygen, carbon dioxide, nitrogen), Nutrients (glucose, lipids, fatty acids, cholesterol, amino acids). Ions (calcium, Iron, Chloride, & other electrolytes). Hormones. Metabolic wastes (urea, uric acid, ammonia, creatine). Antibodies. Clotting protein. Other proteins including enzymes, albumin and transport proteins.

question

Formed elements? Which category is most numerous? What makes up the buffy coat?

answer

-Formed Elements: Blood cells (or living portions) found in the blood. -RBC-are the most numerous -Buffy coat: Consist of WBC & platelets

question

Anemia? 3 causes?

answer

-A decrease in the oxygen-carrying ability of the blood. -Causes: Lakc of dietary iron; Hemorrahage; Destruction/Depression of the bone marrow due to cancer, radiation or medicine; Lack of vitamin B-12; Bacterial infection leaading to lysis of RBC;Genetic defects in hemoglobin structure

question

Name the grandular & agrandular WBCs. Give the major function of each type in the body.

answer

-Grandular WBC (they contain granuels): Neutrophils (Phagocytes @ site of acute infection); Eosinophils (act during parasitic infection and allergies); Basophils (release histamine & heparin during inflammatory reaction, also release chemicals mediating allergy development.; rarest WBC) -Aglandular WBC (they don't contain granuels): Monocytes (Phagocytes; largest of WBC); Lymphocytes (part of the body's immune system); form antibodies & act directly against foreign substances that have managed to invade the body.

question

Name the formed elements that arise from the myeloid stem cells. Name those rising from lymphoid stem cells.

answer

-Myloid Stem cells: Produce RBC, platelets & all leukocytes EXCEPT lymphocytes -Lymphoid Stem Cells: give rise to lymphocytes only.

question

What WBC type resides primarily in the tissues of the body?

answer

The lymphocytes primarily reside in the lymphatic tissues.

question

Describe process of hemostasis.

answer

-Hemostasis is initiated by a break in the blood vessel wall (or lining), initiating vascular spasms & causing platelets to cling to the damaged site. Once attached, the platelets release serotonin, which inhances vasoconstriction. Injured tissue cells release thromboplastin, which interacts with platelet phospholipids (PF3), Ca2+ & plasma clotting factors to form prothrombin activator. Prothrombin activator converts prothrombin to thrombin. -Thrombin, an ezyme, then converts soluble fibrinogen molecules into long fibrin threads, which form the basis of the clot.

question

How can liver dysfunction cause bleeding disorders?

answer

Liver is the source of fibrinogen & many other factors that are necessary for clotting. When the liver is damaged & dysfunctional, it becomes unable to synthesize the usual amounts of clotting factors.When this occurs, abnormal & severe bleeding episodes occur.

question

Agglutnins?

answer

Are antibody molecules present in the plasma that agglutinate foreign RBCs (ex: RBCs w/ different antigens present on their cell membranes)

question

Name the 4 ABO blood types?

answer

A, B, AB, O

question

What is a transfusion reaction?Why does it occur?

answer

-Transfusion Reaction: The clumping & lysis of foreign (donor) RBCs by the hosts agglutinins when a mismatched blood type is infused. -This reaction occurs as the recipients antibodies attack the antigens on RBCs of the mismatched blood type, which causes agglutination & lysis. -the clumping of RBC may clog capillaries, and the released hemoglobin may block kidney tubules, eventually leading to renal shutdown.

question

Explain why a Rh- person doesn't have a transfusion reaction on the 1st exposure to Rh+ blood. Why is there a transfusion reaction the 2nd time he/she receives the Rh+ blood?

answer

The Rh- person doesn't have preformed antibodies against Rh+ blood when 1st exposure occurs. But, if this person receives Rh+ blood, the Rh antigens on the RBC cell membranes are recognized as foreign & anti-Rh antibodies are formed. -On the 2nd transfusion of Rh+ blood, a typical antigen-antibody rxn occurs in which the mismatched donor's RBCs are agglutinated & lysed.

question

If you have a high hematocrit, would you expect your hemoglobin determination to he high or low? Why?

answer

-High; The hematocrit (or packed cell volume), provides a good estimate of the rough volume of RBCs. RBCs are the site of hemoglobin in the blood, so if their # increase, you would expect the total # of the hemoglobin in the blood to increase (barring problems with hemoglobin deficiencies, such as iron deficiencies).

question

A patient on renal dialysis has a low RBC count. What hormone, secreted by the kidneys, can be assumed to be deficient?

answer

Erythropoietin

question

A bone marrow biopsy of man w/long-term drug therapy, shows a abnormally high percentage of nonhematopoietic connective tissue. What condition does this indicate? Is sympotoms are critical, what short-term & long-term treatments are indicated? Will infusion of whole blood/packed blood me more likely?

answer

Aplastic Anemia; -Short-term: Transfusion -Long-term: bone marrow transplant -Packed red cells

question

A woman comes to the clinic complaining of fatigue, shortness of breath & chills. Blood test shows anemia, and a bleeding ulcer is diagnosed. What type of anemia is this?

answer

Iron deficiency anemia

question

Patient is diagnosed with bone marrow cancer & has hematocrit of 70 %. What is this condiditon?

answer

Polycythemia vera

question

Professor is in the Alps vaca. He is short of breath walking upstairs and physical activity.Symptoms disaapear. When he return to USA his erythrocyte count is higher than normal. Why did this happen? Will his RBC count remain at this higher than normal level?

answer

He has secondary polycythemia, which is the bodys attempt @ restoring homeostasis of blood oxygen levels in an enviroment 4500 ft of where barometric pressure is lower (the air is thinner) and less oxygen is available. The RBC count will begin to decline as the body readapts to oxygen level in "Boston air" bcuz erythropoietin levels decline when excess oxygen is carried in the blood.

question

Why is someone more likely to bleed to death when an artery is cleanly severed than when it is crushed and torn?

answer

A crushed/torn artery sustains more tissue than a clearly severed one. Since the vascular spasm is proportional to the amount of tissue damage, a crushed or torn artery (& thus more surface area exposed) will lead to less blood loss. The rougher surfaces on a crushed/torn artery will provide a better site for platelets to attach quickly.

question

How does fetal hemoglobin, HbF, enhances oxygen transfer across the placenta from the mother to the fetus.

answer

Fetal hemoglobin has a greater ability to pick up oxygen than hemoglobin, which is formed after birth.

question

Jenny's RBC count was @ a higher end of the normal range at that time, but 4 weeks later it was substantially elevated beyond that. She started smoking. How does smoking exlain her RBC count?

answer

Smoking generates carbon monoxide, which hemoglobin has a higher affinity for than oxygen, less oxygen is bound to the hemoglobin. -W/the lowering of blood oxygen concentration, like the secondary polycthemia thats induced when going to higher altitudes, a smokers' polycythemia results.

question

Lymph capillaries?

answer

Contain endothelial cells seperated by flaplike valves that can open wide

question

Which parts of the lymph node show increased activity when antibody production is high?

answer

Germinal capillaries

question

Which of the following connect to the lymp node @ the hilum?

answer

Efferent lymphatic vessels

question

Which of the following are part of MALT?

answer

Tonsils; Peyers Patch; Any lymphoid tissue along the digestive tract

question

Developmentally embryonic lymphatic vessels are most closely associated with the?

answer

Veins

question

Which of the following are among the most common indicators of inflammation?

answer

Edema & Antibodies

question

Against which of the following will interferon do some good?

answer

Infection of the body cells by a virus; Some types of cancer

question

Chemical mediators of inflammation include?

answer

Histamine

question

Which of the following antibody classes is usually arranged as a pentamer?

answer

IgM ("immunoglobulin M)

question

Which parts of an antibody molecule are different for an IgG antibody that attacks the same antigen?

answer

Heavy chain variable region; Light chain variable region

question

Which of the following antibody capabilities causes a transfusion reaction with A/B erythrocyte antigen?

answer

Aggluntination

question

Which of the following is/are examples of autoimmune disease?

answer

Type 1 diabetes; Multicle Sclerosis; Graves' disease; Rheumatoid arthritis

question

The main cellular target of the HIV virus that causes AIDS is?

answer

Helper T cells

question

Whats the most important funciton of the lymph nodes?

answer

Lymph nodes remove foreign material (ex bacteria & tumor cells) from lymph and produce lymphocytes.

question

Compare & contrast blood, interstitial fluid, & lymph.

answer

-Blood: contains formed elements & plasma, which has water, salts, plasma proteins, & other dissolved substances such as nutrients, gases, wastes & hormones. -Interstitial Fluid: Is derived form blood & contains similar componets as plasma. -Lymph: Is leaked fluid forced out of capillary beds due to hydrostatic & osmotic pressure. Its very similar to intersitial fluid & plasma. Its essentialy filtered insterstitial fluid or plasma.The fluid will be returned to the circulatory system through lymphatic vessels that will transport the lymph to the subclavian veins. On its journey it travels through lymph nodes where pathogens and debris will be filtered. -

question

Role of tonsils? Spleen?

answer

-Tonsils: Are important for preventing bacterial & foreign pathogens from entereing the body via the pharynx. -Spleen: Functions primarily as a erythrocyte 'graveyard', i.e it destoys worn-out RBCs. It also produces lymphocytes & acts as a blood reservoir.

question

Besides acting as a mechanical barrier, the skin & mucosae of the body contribute to body protection in other ways. Cite the common body locations & the importance of mucus, lysozyme, keratin, acid, pH & cilia.

answer

-Mucous provides a mechanical barrier for pathogens by trapping them. -Mucosae are found on the outer surface of the eyes & in the linings of all body cavities open to the exterior, that is the respiratory, digestive, urinary, & reproductive tracts. -Lysozyme: An enzyme that destroys bacteria, is found saliva, lacrimal fluid, & skin. -Keratin: A protein in epithelial membranes, presents a physical barrier to microorganisms on the skin, as well as being resistent to most weak acids & bases & to bacterial enzymes & toxins. -Acid pH of skin secretions inhibits bacterial growth. Vaginal secretions are also acidic -Hydorochloric acid is secreted by the stomach mucosae and acts to kill pathogens. -Ciliated mucosa of the upper respiratory tract sweep dust & bacteria-laden mucus superiorly towards the mouth, preventing it from entering the lower respiatory passages.

question

What is complement? Besides bacterial lysis, what are some of the role of complement?

answer

-Complement: Is a group of 20 blood proteins that, when activated, causes lysis of the cell to which the antibodies are attached. Other roles of complement include opsonization, inflammatory actions such as stimulating mast cells and basophils to release histamines (which increases vascular permeability), & attracting neutrophils & other inflammatory cells to the infected area.

question

Interferons are referred to as antiviral proteins. What stimulates their production, & how do they protect uninfected cells?

answer

Interferons are secreted by virus-infected cells. They diffuse to nearby cells & bind to their membrane receptors, interfereing with the ability of viruses to multiply within cell walls

question

Immune response?

answer

Is the response of the body to foreign substances.

question

Whats the difference btw a complete antigen & incomplete antigen (hapten)?

answer

-Antigen: Is a foreign substance (nonself) thats capable of activating an immune response & of interacting with the products (cells & antibodies of that response). -Incomplete Antigen: Is a small molecule that connects with our own proteins & this complex becomes immunogenic. Alone, its doesn't elicit any immune response.

question

Humoral Immunity vs Cellular Immunity?

answer

-Hummoral Immunity: Is the B-cell arm of the immune system; The antibody driven immunity. Antibodies circulate in the blood, thus the name 'humoral'. The targets tend to be bacteria. -Cell-Mediated Immunity: Is mediated by T-cells directly or through their cytokine products for virally-infected cells or tumor cells

question

Although the immune system has 2 arms, its has been said, "No T-cells , no immunity". How is this so?

answer

T-cells (notably the helper t-cells) regulate not only the cell mediated immunity but hummoral immunity as well by interacting directly (or indirectly) with B-cells.

question

Immunocompetence? What indicates that a B-cell has developed immunocompetence? Where does the "programming phase" occur in the B-cells?

answer

-Immunocompetence: Is the capability of mounting an immune resp onse against a particular antigen. -the apperance of antigen-specific receptors on the surface of a B-cell or T-cell signals that it has developed immunocompetence. -Immunocompetene Cells have vigorous reactions to foreign antigens but are able to ignore self-antigens. -T-cells are programmed in the Thymus. -B-cells are programed in the bone marrow.

question

Binding of antigens to receptors of immunocompetent lymphocytes leads to clonal selection. Describe the process of clonal selection. What nonlymphocyte cell is a central actor in this process, and what is its function?

answer

-Clonal Selction involves the rapid cell division of the antigen-activated lymphocyte to produe clones or identical cells, all bearing the same antigen-specific receptors. -the macrophage is important in clonal selection because it 'presents' the antigens to the immunocompetent cells.

question

Name the cell types that would be present in a B-cell clone, and give the funtions of each.

answer

-Members of a B-cell clone include B-Memory Cells, which are responsible for immunological memory, & plasma cells which are antibody producing 'factories'

question

Describe the specific roles of helper, cytotoxic, & regulatory T cells in cell-mediated immunity. Which is thought to be disabled in AIDS?

answer

-Helper T-cells are the major regulatory cells; They activate the cytotoxic T-cells & are the population disabled by HIV. -Killer T-cells interact directly interact directly with virus-infected (or foreign) cells to kill (lyse) them. -Regulatory T-cells: cause the immune response to wind down when the enemy (antigen) has been destroyed or inactivated.

question

Primary Vs Secondary immune response. Which is more rapid, why?

answer

-Primary Immune Response: Occurs on the 1st meeting with an Antigen; -Secondary Immune Response: Is the 2nd & subsequent meeting with the antigen. Is faster & stronger bcuz all the preperations (clonal selection & memory cells) have been made & immunological has been established.

question

Describe the structure of an antibody & explain the importance of its variable & constant regions.

answer

-An antibody is Y-shaped. -It consists of 2 heavy chains & 2 light chains, each with a constant region & variable region. -Constant Region: It determines the antibody class & where and how the antibody will act in the body. -The variable regions form the antigen-binding sites.

question

Name 5 classes of immunoglobulins. Which is mostly likely to be found attached to a B-cell membrane? Which is most abundant in plasma? Which is important in allergic reactions? Which is the first Ig ("immunoglobulin") to be released during the primary response? Which can cross the placental barrier?

answer

-5 Classes of Immunoglobuilins: IgM, IgA, IgD, IgG, IgE -IgD is attched to IgB cell membranes & helps activate the B cell -IgG is the most abundant antibody in plasma & is able to cross placental barriers, fix complement & involved in both the primary & secondary immune response to an antigen -IgE is involved in allergic reactions and binds to both mast cells and basophils & initiates histamine release. -IgM is the first antibody relased in the primary resopnse & serves as a antigen receptor when bound to B-cell membranes, fixes complement and is an agglutinating agent. -IgA is present in body secretions that bathe membranes (tears, saliva, mucous. milk) to prevent pathogen attachment to the mucosal surface.

question

How do antibodies help to defend the body?

answer

Antibodies defend the body by fixing complement and by neutralizing, agglutinating, & precipatating antigens

question

Distinguish btw immediate types of allergy & delayed allergic reactions relative to cause and consequences.

answer

-Accute allergic responses occur and resolve within minutes & are mediated by IgE antibodies bound to mast cells. -the mast cells release histamine upon antigen-antibody binding, and histamine causes blood vessels to become leaky. -Typical Symptoms: runny nose (or asthma), watery eyes and hives but could be as severe as anaphylaxis , which is a whole body reaction. -Delayed reaction allergies are mediated by T cells and occur hours to days after exposure to the allergen. Here cytokines are relased by activated T-cells. Since there is no histamine relase, antihistamines dont work; Therefor corticosteroids are used to combat the response.

question

What events can result in the loss of self-tolerance and autoimmune disease?

answer

An autoimmue disease may result from a change in self-antigens, the apperance of self-antigens not previously recognized by the immune system or the cross-reaction of antibodies produced against foreign antigens with self-antigens.

question

Would lack of memory B-cells for a particular antigen impact the primary or secondary humoral response?

answer

If there was a lack of memory B cells fora particular antigen, the secondary humoral response would look like the primary humoral response. Therefore there would not be a stronger, quicker response to an antigen viewed before by the immune system (so vaccination would be ineffective).

question

A infant receives her 1st dose of oral polio vaccine, the nurse tells her parents that the vaccine is a preperation of weakend virus. What type of immunity will the infant develop?

answer

Infant will aquire artificially acquired active immunity.

question

Some people w/ a deficit of IgA exhibit recurrent paranasal sinus & respiratory tract infections. Explain these symptoms.

answer

-IgA is found mostly in mucous & other secretions that bathe body surfaces. It plays an important role in preventing pathogens from entering the body by preventing their attachment to the mucosal surfaces. -Lack in IgA would result in frequent major/minor infections of the sinuses or respiratory tract infections.

question

80yr old man gets flu shot/yr. Flu viruses have a high mutation rate, which result in the appperance of new proteins on the flu viruses "coat". How does this explainthe need to get flu shots annually?

answer

Immunity to previous flu viruses antigens will not protect against new antigens on the viral coat. The flu virus mutates so rapidly, that the vaccine must change every year.

question

59yr old has undergone left radiacl mastectomy (removal of the left breat & left axillary lymph nodes & vessels). her left arm is swollen & painful. Explain her signs & symptoms. Can she expect relief from these symptoms in time? how so?

answer

Lymph nodes & vessels help to return fluid to the circulatory system. Removal results in severe localized edema. She can expect chronic edema along the arm although some lymphatic drainage is eventually restablished by regrowth of lymph vessels from veins.

question

Lymphocytes continuously circulate through the body using blood & lymph as their transport vehicles. What is the importance of this recirculation behavoir?

answer

Lymphocyte circulation through both blood and lymph is important becuz it greatly increases the chance of the lymphocytes coming into contact with antigens

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