208 final – Microbiology – Flashcards
247 test answers
Unlock all answers in this set
Unlock answers 247question
| ligands/attachment proteins |
answer
| adhesins |
Unlock the answer
question
| other factors that can allow infectious disease to adhere |
answer
| fimbriae, capsules, and biofilms |
Unlock the answer
question
| Enzymes, toxins, and other factors that affect the relative ability of a pathogen to infect and cause disease. |
answer
| virulence factors |
Unlock the answer
question
| describe exotoxins |
answer
| -produced inside bacteria and released out of cell -proteins -relatively easy to make food safe when the food contains exotoxins -susceptible to heat -botulinum toxin -diphtheria toxin -tetanus -mostly gram +, but some gram - -very toxic |
Unlock the answer
question
| describe endotoxins |
answer
| -cell bound -lipid based toxins -not heat susceptible -mostly gram negative -pyrogens: fever producing -weak but fatal in large doses |
Unlock the answer
question
| -secreted toxin takin in by host -fluid loss in cells -proteus |
answer
| enterotoxins |
Unlock the answer
question
| investigating a disease outbreak; look at the person, place, time, type of disorder, etc |
answer
| epidemiology |
Unlock the answer
question
| In industrialized countries, 3/4 of the deaths are due to ____ |
answer
| cardiovascular disease or cancer |
Unlock the answer
question
| in developing countries; ___ cause about half the death |
answer
| infectious agents and parasitic diseases |
Unlock the answer
question
| physical barriers, chemical barriers, cellular defenses, inflammation, fever, and molecular defenses are examples of___ |
answer
| nonspecific defense mechanisms |
Unlock the answer
question
| the first line of defense against infectious diseases is to ____ |
answer
| prevent bacteria from invading in the first place |
Unlock the answer
question
| ___ is a physical barrier to infection; ___ is also inhabited by bacteria that inhibit the growth of other bacteria. |
answer
| skin; skin |
Unlock the answer
question
| these produce sebum which discourages bacterial growth |
answer
| sebacceous glands |
Unlock the answer
question
| lowers pH; inhibits bacterial growth |
answer
| sweat glands |
Unlock the answer
question
| these block penetration of microbes and secrete mucous |
answer
| mucous membranes |
Unlock the answer
question
| mucous secreted contains ___ & ___ |
answer
| glycoproteins; electrolytes |
Unlock the answer
question
| ___ are cells that produce mucous |
answer
| goblet cells |
Unlock the answer
question
| mucous forms a ___ layer and prevents __ & __ of mucous membranes. |
answer
| protective; drying; cracking |
Unlock the answer
question
| mucous traps ___ |
answer
| pathogens |
Unlock the answer
question
| other body defenses |
answer
| tears, ciliated epithelium hairs in nose, cough reflex, epiglottis |
Unlock the answer
question
| second line of defenses = |
answer
| cellular defenses; defensive cells such as white blood cells, red blood cells, and platelets |
Unlock the answer
question
| granulocytes include |
answer
| basophils, mast cells, neutrophils, eosinophils |
Unlock the answer
question
| histamine releasing cells |
answer
| basophils |
Unlock the answer
question
| produced in large #s in response to allergies |
answer
| mast cells |
Unlock the answer
question
| __ & __ are types of phagocytes |
answer
| neutrophils & eosinophils |
Unlock the answer
question
| agranulocytes include ___ & ___; they are phagocytic cells |
answer
| monocytes and lymphocytes |
Unlock the answer
question
| what are the 4 steps in phagocytosis |
answer
| 1. chemotaxis 2. adherence 3. ingestion 4. digestion |
Unlock the answer
question
| a body's defensive response of tissue damage from microbial infection, also responses to physical damage. |
answer
| inflammation |
Unlock the answer
question
| inflammatory process (4 steps) |
answer
| 1. histamine released by basophils 2. diffuses into capillaries causing vasodilation 3. This increases blood flow to injury site. 4. blood delivers clotting factors; nutrients |
Unlock the answer
question
| this raises body temp above optimum growing temp for many pathogens |
answer
| fever |
Unlock the answer
question
| ___ increases heat which increases rate of reactions; especially in pathogenic cells |
answer
| fever |
Unlock the answer
question
| ___ makes you feel ill; therefore you rest and prevent further damage |
answer
| fever |
Unlock the answer
question
| molecular defenses in the complement system _____ |
answer
| participate in the lysis of foreign substances |
Unlock the answer
question
| interferons are ____ |
answer
| antiviral proteins |
Unlock the answer
question
| describe how interferons work between host cell 1 and host cell 2 |
answer
| host cell 1: makes interferon, is killed by virus host cell 2: protected against virus by interferon made by cell 1 |
Unlock the answer
question
| ___ are protein molecules released by host cells to non-specifically inhibit the spread of viral infections. |
answer
| interferons |
Unlock the answer
question
| ___ provides an effective barrier against penetration by disease agents and inhibits and destroys organisms that gain access to host tissues |
answer
| immunity |
Unlock the answer
question
| two types of immune responses |
answer
| 1. humoral immune response 2. cell-mediated response |
Unlock the answer
question
| two main characteristics of the immune system |
answer
| 1. antigen 2. antibodies |
Unlock the answer
question
| ___ is a chemical that elicits an antibody response and can combine with that specific antibody |
answer
| antigen |
Unlock the answer
question
| explain antibodies |
answer
| -protein -produced in response to the presence of an antigen -proteins are called immunoglobulins -basic structure: 2 heavy chains and 2 light chains - variable regions confer specificity - chains are held together by disulfide bridges |
Unlock the answer
question
| what are the 4 different types of antibodies |
answer
| 1. IGG 2. IGA 3. IGM 4. IGE |
Unlock the answer
question
| 75-80% of immunoglobulins in the system are ___ |
answer
| IGG |
Unlock the answer
question
| ___ exist as monomers and dimers; they are the antibodies that are passed from mother to child during breastfeeding for the first few days after birth |
answer
| IGA |
Unlock the answer
question
| ___ are commonly found in the lymph system; they tend to be first produced in response to infection |
answer
| IGMs |
Unlock the answer
question
| ___ are monomers and we are not quite sure what they do |
answer
| IGGs |
Unlock the answer
question
| explain the humoral immune response |
answer
| -antibodies dissolved in extracellular fluid -B lymphocytes (B cells) -lymphoid follicles - appendix, tonsils, and spleen |
Unlock the answer
question
| ___ are stimulated by the presence of an antigen |
answer
| B cells |
Unlock the answer
question
| B cells, as a result of being stimulated by an antigen, differentiate into ___ and ___ |
answer
| plasma cells; memory cells |
Unlock the answer
question
| ___ cells then produce antibodies that are specific to the antigen that triggered the whole process |
answer
| plasma cells |
Unlock the answer
question
| ___ cells are cells that retain the memory of the antigen and the type of antibody that needed to be produced |
answer
| memory cells |
Unlock the answer
question
| explain the cell mediated response |
answer
| - T cells - no antibodies secreted - antigen receptors on cells - destroys bacteria and viruses within host cells - cytokines |
Unlock the answer
question
| T cells differentiate into ___ and ____ cells |
answer
| T helper cells; T cytotoxic cells |
Unlock the answer
question
| cells involved in triggering the immune destruction of tagged cells; they are necessary for B cell activation |
answer
| T helper cells |
Unlock the answer
question
| Tc cells _____ |
answer
| kill infected cells |
Unlock the answer
question
| NK cells are ____ |
answer
| natural killer cells; they kill cells infected by virus/cause apoprosis |
Unlock the answer
question
| what are the target of the AIDS virus? |
answer
| T helper cells |
Unlock the answer
question
| the second exposure elicits a ___ and ___ immune response |
answer
| greater; faster |
Unlock the answer
question
| _ = serum _ = breastmilk _ = allergic reactions _ = initial type of antibodies produced |
answer
| IgG IgA IgE IgM |
Unlock the answer
question
| it takes about ___ before you are exposed to something before the first antibodies show up; it takes nearly __ before large quantities of immunoglobulins show up |
answer
| 5 days; 2 weeks |
Unlock the answer
question
| 4 types of acquired immunity |
answer
| 1) naturally acquired active immunity 2) naturally acquired passive immunity 3) artificially acquired active immunity 4) artificially acquired passive immunity |
Unlock the answer
question
| how does one gain naturally acquired active immunity? |
answer
| direct exposure (directly exposed to antigen and body produced and memorized antibody) |
Unlock the answer
question
| naturally acquired passive immunity example |
answer
| newborns and mothers breastmilk (babies acquire immunity from mothers breastmilk) |
Unlock the answer
question
| artificially acquired active immunity? |
answer
| vaccination to receive antigen |
Unlock the answer
question
| artificially acquired passive immunity |
answer
| receive antibodies/antitoxins which work for a temporary amount of time |
Unlock the answer
question
| some vaccines involve live antigens, such as the ___, though they are usually weakended. inactive vaccines include ___. |
answer
| sabin polio; salk polio |
Unlock the answer
question
| in a ___ you are actually given antibodies to the toxin |
answer
| toxoid vaccine (tetanus) |
Unlock the answer
question
| ___ is used against venom |
answer
| antiserum (passive antibodies) |
Unlock the answer
question
| Elisa direct test, tests for ___ |
answer
| presence of antigen in system; if antigen is present it will bind to antibody |
Unlock the answer
question
| Elisa indirect test, tests for ... |
answer
| the presence of the antibody in the system |
Unlock the answer
question
| immunological disorders/concerns |
answer
| -hypersensitivities -allergies -autoimmune disease - tissue matching - ABO blood grouping/hemolytic disease of newborn |
Unlock the answer
question
| type I hypersensitivities |
answer
| -asthma, hay fever, hives - immune system overreacts and produces a large number of IgE - histamine release; histamine causes swelling by vasodilation; swelling of tissues - anaphylactic shock if extreme |
Unlock the answer
question
| type II hypersensitivities |
answer
| - cells destroyed - blood typing - hemolytic disease of the newborn - donors antigens with recipients antibodies |
Unlock the answer
question
| what antigens and antibodies does each blood type contain |
answer
| Blood type Antigen Antibody A A B B B A AB A+B - O - A+B |
Unlock the answer
question
| A type blood can be given to ___; and can receive ___ |
answer
| anybody that does not have A antibodies so A and AB; from A or O |
Unlock the answer
question
| B type blood can be given to ___; and can receive ___ |
answer
| anybody that does not have B antibodies so B and AB; from B or O |
Unlock the answer
question
| AB blood type can donate to ___; and can receive ____ |
answer
| AB only; universal recipient and can receive all blood types |
Unlock the answer
question
| blood type O can receive from ___; and donate to ___ |
answer
| blood type O only; universal donor and can donate to all |
Unlock the answer
question
| blood can either be __ or ___ |
answer
| Rhesus + or Rhesus - |
Unlock the answer
question
| if mother and newborn child are both RH-, then ___ |
answer
| no problem |
Unlock the answer
question
| if child Rh + and mom Rh -, then ___ |
answer
| the mothers body starts to produce antibodies against the fetus; child does not suffer ill effects against this; if another Rh+ fetus comes along then the mothers body will attack the fetus |
Unlock the answer
question
| most immune disorders are some sort of ___ |
answer
| hypersensitivities |
Unlock the answer
question
| type III hypersensitivities |
answer
| - immune complex formed, from complement activation, later will release chemicals that cause damage - kidney and lung damage |
Unlock the answer
question
| type IV hypersensitivities |
answer
| - cell mediated hypersensitivity - delayed reactions - happens with tissue grafts |
Unlock the answer
question
| autograft |
answer
| tissue moved to different location from another location on the body |
Unlock the answer
question
| isograft |
answer
| Type of graft in which tissues are moved between genetically identical individuals (identical twins) |
Unlock the answer
question
| allograft |
answer
| Type of graft in which tissues are transplanted from a donor to a genetically dissimilar recipient of the same species. |
Unlock the answer
question
| xenograft |
answer
| graft between different species |
Unlock the answer
question
| autoimmune diseases |
answer
| Any of a group of diseases which result when an individual begins to make autoantibodies or cytotoxic T cells against normal body components. diabetes, ms, lupus, RA |
Unlock the answer
question
| commensalism |
answer
| one organism benefits from the relationship while the other is neither harmed nor benefited |
Unlock the answer
question
| mutualism |
answer
| both organisms benefit from the relationship |
Unlock the answer
question
| parasitism |
answer
| one organism benefits while the other is harmed |
Unlock the answer
question
| opportunistic organisms |
answer
| potentially pathogenic organisms, given the right set of circumstances these organisms can become pathogenic |
Unlock the answer
question
| what are 3 of the right set of cirumstances for an opportunistic organism to become a pathogen? |
answer
| 1. immune suppression due to flu, chemo, etc. 2. changes in normal biota due to antibiotics 3. normal biota in unusual places. ex: e coli is normally present in the digestive tract, but if it gets into the respiratory tract it could cause illness. |
Unlock the answer
question
| state Koch's postulates |
answer
| 1. organism is always present in infected individual 2. you can isolate and grow the organism 3. innoculation leads to disease 4. can reisolate organism |
Unlock the answer
question
| exceptions to kochs postulates |
answer
| 1. viruses or obligate intracellular parasites 2. several viruses have the same symptoms but are caused by different pathogens 3. immunity from past exposure would prevent some people from getting the disease |
Unlock the answer
question
| 3 ways in which infectious diseases are classified |
answer
| 1. contagious 2. incidence 3. prevalence |
Unlock the answer
question
| contagious |
answer
| easily spread from one person to another |
Unlock the answer
question
| incidence |
answer
| the fraction of a population that contracts the disease during a particular time period (new cases) |
Unlock the answer
question
| prevalence |
answer
| the fraction of the population that have the disease at a particular time. (new cases + people who were sick before; always greater or equal to incidence) |
Unlock the answer
question
| local vs. systemic infection |
answer
| local = contained in a particular area or organ system systemic = spread throughout your body; much more serious than local infection |
Unlock the answer
question
| bacterial systemic infection |
answer
| bacteremia |
Unlock the answer
question
| toxic systemic infections |
answer
| toxemia |
Unlock the answer
question
| viral systemic infection |
answer
| viremia |
Unlock the answer
question
| primary vs. secondary infections |
answer
| primary: can infect a healthy individual secondary: can only infect an immunocomprimised individual. occurs as a result of primary infections. |
Unlock the answer
question
| subclinical infection |
answer
| A subclinical infection is the asymptomatic (without apparent sign) carrying of an (infection) by an individual of an agent (microbe, intestinal parasite, or virus) that usually is a pathogen causing illness, at least in some individuals. |
Unlock the answer
question
| In medicine, a disease is considered _____ if a patient is a carrier for a disease or infection but experiences no symptoms. |
answer
| asymptomatic |
Unlock the answer
question
| reservoirs for the organisms that are causing the infection (3) |
answer
| 1. humans 2. animals 3. non-living objects |
Unlock the answer
question
| contact transmission = prevention = |
answer
| contact between sick and healthy individual. prevention = isolate sick individual, wash hands |
Unlock the answer
question
| vehicle transmission = prevention = |
answer
| = carried from one individual to another from some sort of nonliving vehicle. = sanitize clean blankets, cups, etc. |
Unlock the answer
question
| vector transmission = prevention = |
answer
| =transferred by a living organism (animal) = eliminate vector |
Unlock the answer
question
| Can there be more than one way of transmission for a particular disease |
answer
| yes |
Unlock the answer
question
| nosocomial infections |
answer
| acquired within a hospital or institution |
Unlock the answer
question
| 3 factors that set up a system for a nosocomial infection: |
answer
| 1. compromised host: come in with infections or have surgery that stresses and traumatizes the system. 2. chain of transmission: nurses spread infections from patient to patient; only factor you can really reduce 3. microorganisms in hospital environment: more pathogenic that normal/everyday microorganisms; very difficult to totally eliminate. |
Unlock the answer
question
| predisposing factors |
answer
| anything that makes the body more susceptible to disease. ex. comprimised immune system, gender, stress, nutrition, stress, etc. |
Unlock the answer
question
| development of disease: there are a number of distinct stages in a disease, give 5 |
answer
| 1. period of incubation 2. prodiomal period 3. period of illness 4. period of decline 5. period of convalescence |
Unlock the answer
question
| period of incubation |
answer
| not experiencing any symptoms, but the organism is beginning to replicate |
Unlock the answer
question
| prodiomal period |
answer
| start feeling the first effects of the organism |
Unlock the answer
question
| period of illness |
answer
| have full blown infection, feel very sick. from here you can recover and go into convalescence or die |
Unlock the answer
question
| period of decline |
answer
| patient feel they are getting better, but they are still immunocompromised |
Unlock the answer
question
| period of convalescence |
answer
| essentially better but still not %100, secondary infections can still take place |
Unlock the answer
question
| do organisms have stages of all different lengths and develop in different ways |
answer
| yes |
Unlock the answer
question
| ____ may cause disease if introduced into an unusual site in the body |
answer
| normal bacteria flora |
Unlock the answer
question
| how are we exposed to pathogens |
answer
| through food, water, air, drugs, and accidental exposure |
Unlock the answer
question
| what are some portals of entry for a pathogen? |
answer
| - mucous membrane - respiratory tract (#1) - gastrointestinal tract (#2) - genitourinary tract - conjunctiva - skin - parenteral route (needle stick) |
Unlock the answer
question
| adherence factors of pathogens |
answer
| adhesins fimbriae capsules biofilms |
Unlock the answer
question
| Molecules that attach pathogens to their target cells. |
answer
| adhesins |
Unlock the answer
question
| Sticky, proteinaceous extensions of some bacterial cells that function to adhere cells to one another and to environmental surfaces. |
answer
| fimbriae |
Unlock the answer
question
| A slimy community of microbes growing on a surface |
answer
| biofilm |
Unlock the answer
question
| Glycocalyx composed of repeating units of organic chemicals firmly attached to the cell surface. |
answer
| capsule |
Unlock the answer
question
| chemical groups that give the microorganism toxic, pathogenic properties |
answer
| virulence agents |
Unlock the answer
question
| examples of virulence agents |
answer
| - adhesion factors - extracellular enzymes (kinases, collagenase, coagulase) help invasion process - antiphagocytic factors (capsules, M protein, leukocidins) - toxins (exo, endo, entero) |
Unlock the answer
question
| exotoxins |
answer
| - produced inside bacteria and released out of cell - proteins - food poisoning from foods that are not heated -susceptible to heat - mostly come from gram postive bacteria - very toxic |
Unlock the answer
question
| endotoxins |
answer
| - cell bound - lipids (lipid A, G-, LPS) - pyrogens - fever producing - salmonella typhi - treatment = IVs to give fluids; let infection run its course - if you take antibiotics, you will kill all the pathogens releasing all the toxins in you body simultaneously - mostly come from gram negative bacteria - weak, but fatal in large doses |
Unlock the answer
question
| enterotoxins |
answer
| - secreted toxin taken in by hosts - causes fluid loss in cells - large volumes of watery diarrhea |
Unlock the answer
question
| who, what, when, where, why, how of a disease |
answer
| epidemiology |
Unlock the answer
question
| define virulent |
answer
| measure of pathogenicity |
Unlock the answer
question
| define infectious |
answer
| causes infection |
Unlock the answer
question
| define pathogenic |
answer
| capable of producing disease |
Unlock the answer
question
| in industialized countries 3/4 of deaths are due to ____ |
answer
| cancer and cardiovascular disease |
Unlock the answer
question
| in developing regions, ___ cause 1/2 the deaths |
answer
| infectious agents and parasitic diseases |
Unlock the answer
question
| nonspecific defense mechinisms (generic) |
answer
| 1st level = physical and chemical barriers 2nd level (organism has invaded system) = cellular defenses: inflammation, fever, & molecular defense) |
Unlock the answer
question
| explain the 1st line of defense |
answer
| - prevent bacteria from invading - skin is inhabited by bacteria that inhibit the growth of other bacteria; if they were not there you would be very prone to fungal infection. - sebaceous glands produce sebum which discourages pathogen growth - sweat glands lower pH thus inhibiting pathogen growth |
Unlock the answer
question
| mucous membranes |
answer
| - block penetration of microbes and secretes mucous - glycoproteins and electrolytes - track pathogens and prevents them from going any further - mucous produced by goblet cells - forms a protective layer - prevents drying and cracking of mucous membranes - traps pathogens |
Unlock the answer
question
| list 4 other 1st line defenses |
answer
| - tears - ciliated epithelium - cough reflex = trying to get rid of junk in lungs (green mucus = dead bacterial cells) - epiglottis = gag reflex |
Unlock the answer
question
| second line of defense |
answer
| - cellular defenses - defensive cells: white blood cells, red blood cells, platelets |
Unlock the answer
question
| how can white blood cells/leukocytes be separated |
answer
| -Granulocytes: grainy look to cells when they are stained 1. basophils: histamines, inflammation 2. mast cells: allergies 3. neutrophils: phagocytes 4. eosinophils: phagocytes, allergies, worm infections -agranulocytes: lack grainy appearance 1. monocytes: phagocytic cells 2. lymphocytes: phagocytinc cells |
Unlock the answer
question
| list the steps in the process of phagocytosis |
answer
| 1. chemotaxis: white blood cell is attracted to invader (things on surface of bacterial cell) 2. adherence to each other 3. ingestion of bacterial cell 4. digestion: vacuole fuses with lysosome, broken down material used or excreted |
Unlock the answer
question
| the increased virulence of capsulated bacterial strains is due to the ___ which helps cells avoid phagocytosis |
answer
| capsular polysaccharide |
Unlock the answer
question
| a body's defensive response to tissue damage from microbial infection, also responds to physical damage |
answer
| inflammation |
Unlock the answer
question
| symptoms of localized infection |
answer
| local heat, pain, swelling, redness |
Unlock the answer
question
| describe the inflammatory process |
answer
| - histamine released by basophils - diffuses into capillaries causing vasodilation - this increases blood flow to injury site - blood delivers clotting factors, nutrients |
Unlock the answer
question
| fever |
answer
| -raises body temp above optimum growing temperature for many pathogens - heat increases rate of reactions for white blood cells - let low grade fever run its course - fevers make you feel ill, therefore you rest preventing further damage |
Unlock the answer
question
| list 3 molecular defenses |
answer
| 1. complement system 2. interferons 3. antigens |
Unlock the answer
question
| complement system |
answer
| causes lysis of bacterial cells; bacterial cells activate one protein which in turn activates more, this cascade effect causes inflammation and tagging for phagocytic direct killing |
Unlock the answer
question
| interferons |
answer
| antiviral proteins; gene becomes activated once virus enters, releases interferon, moves to uninfected neighboring cells and tells them to turn on anti-viral proteins |
Unlock the answer
question
| antigens |
answer
| trigger immune responses, specifically the production of antibodies |
Unlock the answer
question
| immune response that provides effective barrier against penetration by disease agents and inhibits and destroys organisms that gain access to hosts tissues |
answer
| humoral immune response |
Unlock the answer
question
| immune response after pathogen has entered cell |
answer
| cell-mediated response |
Unlock the answer
question
| when antigens and antibodies bind, ____ |
answer
| the antigen is destroyed in some way |
Unlock the answer
question
| antigen |
answer
| chemical that triggers antibody response |
Unlock the answer
question
| antibodies |
answer
| proteins produced in response to the presence of an antigen; immunoglobulins; basic structure is 2 heavy chains and 2 light chains, quaternary structure, variable regions confer specificity |
Unlock the answer
question
| toxins which are proteins are usually ___ toxins which are lipids are ____ |
answer
| exotoxins endotoxins |
Unlock the answer
question
| antibodies can exist as __,__, ___. the part that can vary on an antibody is where it binds ____ |
answer
| monomers, dimers, pentamers; antigen molecules |
Unlock the answer
question
| ___ is secreted in high concentration in mothers breast milk 24 hours after birth |
answer
| IGA |
Unlock the answer
question
| ___ are produced in large concentrations during allergic reactions |
answer
| IGEs |
Unlock the answer
question
| __/__ are produced when immune system is in the presence of an antigen |
answer
| IGG/IGMs |
Unlock the answer
question
| antibodies can work in 3 ways |
answer
| 1. agglutination 2. neutralize toxins by binding them 3. WBCs will destroy cells that have antibodies attached to them |
Unlock the answer
question
| explain the humoral immune system |
answer
| - antibodies dissolved in extracellular fluids - B lymphocytes - lymphoid follicles = produced in the appendix, tonsils, spleen - B cells are stimulated by the presence of antigen, T cells assist. B cells differentiate into: 1. plasma cells: produce and secrete antibodies specific to antigen that caused stimulation 2. memory cells: retain the memory of the antigen and what type of antibody was produced |
Unlock the answer
question
| explain the cell mediated immune response |
answer
| - T cells - no antibodies secreted - antigen receptors on cells - destroys bacteria and viruses within host cells -cytokines - triggering of t lymphocytes, t cells differentiate into: 1. helper t cells: release cytokines which activate other cells of the immune system, necessary for B cell activation. 2. cytotoxic T cells: kill infected cells by punching holes in cells |
Unlock the answer
question
| Monocytes, macrophages, and their close relatives that process antigens and activate cells of the immune system. |
answer
| antigen presenting cell (APC) |
Unlock the answer
question
| ___; helper T cell binds to human cell and triggers it to make interleukin 1 which further stimulates T helper cell which in turn produces interleukin 2 which triggers T helper cell to continuously clone itself |
answer
| Antigen presenting cell (APC) |
Unlock the answer
question
| T helper cells then produce ___ which stimulate __ cells and ___ cells which triggers humoral immune response |
answer
| cytokines; Tc; B |
Unlock the answer
question
| AIDS virus targets ___ cells which are the most needed, and most vulnerable. Drugs work to ____ |
answer
| T helper; mutate virus DNA or block surface determinants on virus |
Unlock the answer
question
| Immune response: second exposure ____. ex: if you get poison ivy more than once, then you will get the nasty rash, it will not happen the very first time you come in contact with the plant. |
answer
| elicits a greater and faster response |
Unlock the answer
question
| the immune system is ___ |
answer
| interconnected |
Unlock the answer
question
| naturally acquired active immunity: naturally acquired passive immunity: artificially acquired active immunity: artificially acquired pass. immunity: |
answer
| direct exposure newborns, breast milk vaccinations, antigens antibodies, antitoxins |
Unlock the answer
question
| what is the function of a histamine |
answer
| a vasodilator |
Unlock the answer
question
| types of immunization, vaccines: |
answer
| 1. active antigens - vaccinated using an attenuated pathogen, can backfire and cause disease (sabin polio) 2. inactive vaccines (salk polio) 3. toxoid vaccines (tetanus) - inactive toxin 4. passive antibodies - antiserum (against venom) |
Unlock the answer
question
| How do we measure immunity |
answer
| with the antibody-antigen response |
Unlock the answer
question
| Direct ELISA test detects ____ Indirect ELISA test detects ___ |
answer
| detects antigens/current infection detects antibodies/current or previous |
Unlock the answer
question
| type I hypersensitivities |
answer
| - vasodilation - asthma - hay fever - hives - Large # of IGEs - histamine relase - possible anaphylactic shock: airways constrict due to swelling of tissues surrounding airways |
Unlock the answer
question
| type 2 hypersensitivities |
answer
| - cells destroyed - blood typing - Rh + or - |
Unlock the answer
question
| if mother is Rh - and child is Rh + |
answer
| problem with second child |
Unlock the answer
question
| if mother is Rh + and child is Rh - |
answer
| no problem |
Unlock the answer
question
| type 3 hypersensitivities |
answer
| - immune complex formed from complement activation - later will release chemicals that cause damage. - kidney and lung damage |
Unlock the answer
question
| type 4 hypersensitivities |
answer
| - caused by exposure to antigen that stimulates immune response - poison ivy - stronger second exposure reaction due to memory cells |
Unlock the answer
question
| autoimmune diseases |
answer
| - also involves some of the different types of hypersensitivities - body turns on itself, decides some part of it is an antigen - produce antibodies against own cells that damage them - usually an increase or decrease in hormone production - diabetes, ra, transplant rejection, lupus |
Unlock the answer
question
| autograft |
answer
| tissue moved to different location on the body - best type to avoid rejection |
Unlock the answer
question
| isograft |
answer
| receive graft from identical twin - should not be a risk of rejection |
Unlock the answer
question
| allograft |
answer
| receive donated tissue from an individual not genetically identical to you but relatively similar - the closer the match, the lower the risk of rejection. |
Unlock the answer
question
| xenograft |
answer
| graft between different species, such as pig heart valves going into humans, last resort! |
Unlock the answer
question
| at the beginning of an immune system response __ is produced, but later it is mainly __ that is produced |
answer
| IgM, IgG |
Unlock the answer
question
| descibe the structure of a virus |
answer
| double or single stranded DNA or RNA, capsid protein coat, optional envelope and spikes, super small |
Unlock the answer
question
| naked virus |
answer
| no envelope |
Unlock the answer
question
| capsids are ___ |
answer
| polymers of capsomere proteins |
Unlock the answer
question
| spikes act as ___ |
answer
| antigens; H1N1 virus had H1 and N1 spikes |
Unlock the answer
question
| virus characteristics |
answer
| 1. host specific 2. filterable 3. obligate intracellular parasites |
Unlock the answer
question
| what is an obligate intracellular parasite |
answer
| Obligate intracellular parasites cannot reproduce outside their host cell, meaning that the parasite's reproduction is entirely reliant on intracellular resources. |
Unlock the answer
question
| life cycle of a virus |
answer
| 1. attachment - specific site 2. penetration - phagocytosis 3. uncoating 4. replication 5. assembly 6. release - lysis, budding out |
Unlock the answer
question
| cycle of a lysogenic virus |
answer
| becomes incorporated into cells genome, lag period where virus is not expressed, much harder for immune system to handle |
Unlock the answer
question
| life cycle of a lytic virus |
answer
| kills host cell |
Unlock the answer
question
| budding off |
answer
| viruses with envelope, does not kill host cell so it can continue to churn out additional viral particles |
Unlock the answer
question
| aids targets __ cells, nosocomial infections are acquired in ___ and ___ |
answer
| T helper; hospitals; institutions |
Unlock the answer
question
| mushrooms = |
answer
| toad stools |
Unlock the answer
question
| yeasts are __ celled, whereas molds are ___ celled |
answer
| single; multi |
Unlock the answer
question
| hyphal mass = |
answer
| mycelium, grows in soil |
Unlock the answer
question
| spores = |
answer
| asexual and sexual |
Unlock the answer
question
| nutritional adaptations of fungi |
answer
| - can tolerate acidic environments where bacteria cannot survive. - aerobic, grow on surface - yeasts can revert to fermentation pathways if needed - more resistant to osmotic pressure, can grown in high salt/sugar environments - can grown in low moisture - require less nitrogen than bacteria |
Unlock the answer
question
| fungi are ___, only invade immunocompromised people |
answer
| opportunistic pathogens |
Unlock the answer
question
| fungi often occur as __, especially after taking ___ |
answer
| secondary infections, antibiotics |
Unlock the answer
question
| Fungi __ use carbon dioxide as a sole carbon source, and are therefore heterotrophs |
answer
| cannot |
Unlock the answer
question
| treatment of fungal infections |
answer
| - eukaryotic cells, so you are limited in targets and dosage treatments are slow - mostly topical - works by affecting permeability of cells - most treatments are fungistatic, prevent further spread but do not kill what is already present |
Unlock the answer
question
| protozoans have __ life cycles |
answer
| complex |
Unlock the answer
question
| drugs used to treat protozoan infections generally go for the ____, cause many ___ |
answer
| slow kill; side effects |
Unlock the answer
question
| current infectious disease threats |
answer
| 1. emergence of naturally hypervirulent strains such as SARS and H1N1 2. bioterrorism 3. emergence of drug resistand bacteria |
Unlock the answer
question
| parasitive survival factors |
answer
| 1.parasites have successfully adapted to almost all environmental niches within hosts 2. parasites that are best adapted are least pathogenic 3. parasite-host relationships are typically long term/chronic |
Unlock the answer
question
| by definition, all ___ injure their hosts |
answer
| parasites |
Unlock the answer
question
| the study of the cause of a disease |
answer
| etiology |
Unlock the answer
question
| Study of the occurrence, distribution, and spread of disease in humans. |
answer
| epidemiology |
Unlock the answer
question
| the ability of a microorganism to cause disease is termed ___, and the degree is termed ___ |
answer
| pathogenicity; virulence |
Unlock the answer
question
| ___, also called lipid A, is released when the bacterial cells die naturally or are digested by phagocytic cells such as macrophages |
answer
| endotoxins |
Unlock the answer
question
| many organisms secrete __ that are central to their pathogenicity in that they destroy host cells or interfere with metabolism. what are the three types? |
answer
| exotoxins; 1. cytotoxins 2. neurotoxins 3. enterotoxins |
Unlock the answer
question
| diseases that spread naturally from their usual animal hosts to humans are called ___ |
answer
| zoonotic diseases |
Unlock the answer
question
| if a disease develops rapidly but lasts only a short time, it is called an ___ |
answer
| acute disease |
Unlock the answer
question
| ___ diseases develop slowly and are continual or recurrent |
answer
| chronic |
Unlock the answer
question
| ___ diseases are those in which a pathogen remain inactive for a long period of time before becoming active. |
answer
| latent |
Unlock the answer
question
| when an infectious disease comes from another infected host, either directly or indirectly, it is ___ |
answer
| communicable |
Unlock the answer
question
| if a communicable disease is easily transmitted between hosts, it is also called a ___ disease |
answer
| contagious |
Unlock the answer
question
| ___ diseases arise outside of hosts or from normal microbiota |
answer
| noncommunicable |
Unlock the answer
question
| ___ are a subset of nosocomial infections that ironically are the direct result of modern medical procedures such as the use of catheters, invasive procedures, and surgery. |
answer
| iatrogenic infection |
Unlock the answer
question
| the first and second lines of the bodys defenses are ___ |
answer
| nonspecific |
Unlock the answer
question
| 5 steps of phagocytosis |
answer
| 1) chemotaxis 2) adherence 3) ingestion 4) killing 5) elimination |
Unlock the answer
question
| ___ is movement of a cell either toward a chemical stimulus or away from a chemical stimulus |
answer
| chemotaxis |
Unlock the answer
question
| The coating of pathogens by proteins called opsonins, making them more vulnerable to phagocytes. |
answer
| opsonization |
Unlock the answer
question
| an encompassed pathogen by a phagocyte is known as a __ |
answer
| phagosome |
Unlock the answer
question
| lysosomes within the phagocyte fuse with newly formed phagosomes to form ___, or digestive vesicles |
answer
| phagolysosomes |
Unlock the answer
question
| Set of blood plasma proteins that act as chemotactic attractants, trigger inflammation and fever, and ultimately effect the destruction of foreign cells. |
answer
| complement system |
Unlock the answer
question
| Protein molecules that inhibit the spread of viral infections. |
answer
| interferons |
Unlock the answer
question
| the bodys ability to recognize and defend itself against distinct invaders and their products |
answer
| adaptive or specific immunity |
Unlock the answer
question
| Cell suicide |
answer
| apoptosis |
Unlock the answer
question
| Any immune response against a foreign antigen that is exaggerated beyond the norm. |
answer
| hypersensitivity |
Unlock the answer
question
| Any of a group of diseases which result when an individual begins to make autoantibodies or cytotoxic T cells against normal body components. |
answer
| autoimmune disease |
Unlock the answer
