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Broad definition of wildlife

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all plants and animals

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Specific definition of wildlife

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only game animals, NOT fishes, mostly free ranging birds and mammals

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3 facets of Wildlife Management

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Human dimension, habitats, animals

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2 types of Wildlife Management

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active and passive

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Active wildlife management

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1)Change population numbers DIRECTLY: harvest (hunting) or translocations 2) Change population numbers INDIRECTLY: food supply, change habitat composition, density of predators.

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Passive wildlife management

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1) Preservation 2) minimize external influences on wildlife and habitat 3) let natural processes take place 4) may be appropriate in some cases- endangered species

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4 ways to manage wildlife

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1) population increase- endangered species 2) population decrease- damage problems; deer, beaver, coyote 3) harvest for continuing yield- game species 4) leave it alone- monitor status

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3 decisions for setting goals

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1) choose desired goal- gather info 2) which management goal or option is appropriate? 3) what action will best achieve the management goal?

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Era of Abundance ( 1600-1849)

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wildlife treated as though always plentiful, populations declined with settlement, local exterminations not a concern just move somewhere else

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Era of Abundance events

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1630- earliest record of wildlife mgmt. Mass Bay colony established bounty for large predators to try to reduce numbers. 1646- first closed hunting season in RI colony 1708- closed seasons on upland game birds in some NY colonies

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Era of Exploitation (1850-1885)

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market hunting and sport hunting flourished, bison declined from millions to almost extinct, decline of wildlife accelerated by improved weapons and railroads, few attempts to conserve wildlife

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Era of Exploitation events

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first game wardens established in Maine, NY first state to require hunting licenses, first daily bag limits imposed in Iowa on prairie chickens

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Era of Protection (1885-1929)

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people realized game populations were declining, obvious reason was over exploitation, remedy=legal protection

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Important people of the Era of Protection

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John Muir- Sierra Club 1892 George Grinnell & Teddy Roosevelt- Boone and Crockett Club 1887

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Era of Protection events

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first federal wildlife refuge in Pelican Island, FL, state game and fish depts assumed jurisdiction over resident wildlife, Teddy R. set aside 230 million acres.

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Lacey Act (1900)

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decreased market hunting by making interstate transportation of illegally killed game a federal offense

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Weeks-McLean Act (1913)

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federal control over migratory birds and ended spring waterfowl hunting

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Migratory Bird Treaty Act (1918)

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established cooperation between Canada and US for management of migratory birds

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Era of Game Management (1930-1965)

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legal protection by itself was insufficient to stop declining wildlife populations, needed info about basic requirements of animals to properly manage

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Era of Management events

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Aldo Leopold published "Game Management" which signaled birth of professional wildlife conservation (game species)

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Duck Stamp Act (1934)

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all waterfowl hunters had to purchase and proceeds went to wetland habitats

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Pittman-Robertson Act (1937)

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most important event in this era, 11% excise tax on sporting arms and ammunition, funds given back to states on matching basis (3:1) for wildlife research and restoration; has generated > $2 billion for wildlife conservation since it began

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Era of Environmental Mgmt (1966-present)

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emphasis not just on game species, biodiversity, ecosystem mgmt, science-based mgmt, nongame and endangered species

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Era of Environmental Mgmt events

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state wildlife agencies broadened their programs to include more species, Environmental Protection Agency 1970, Food Security Act 1985

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Endangered Species Act ( 1966)

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authorized Secretary of Interior to keep a list of rare and endangered species; initially gave no legal protection or federal aid, but started a commitment

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National Environmental Policy Act (1970)

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established Council of Environmental Quality; required Environmental Impact Statements for federally-assisted projects likely to have environmental effects

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3 types of wildlife management funding

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1) traditional 2) non traditional 3) federal aid

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Who is Gary Moody?

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Chief of Wildlife Section of the Division of Wildlife and Freshwater Fisheries for the Alabama Dept. of Conservation & Natural Resources

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Traditional funding

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About 70% of funding comes from; 1)Licenses and permits- used by all states 2)Legislative appropriations- general fund, collected from every citizen, Alabama doesn't receive money from the general fund

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Non-traditional funding

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About 10% of funding come from; 1) taxes on commodities, property taxes, income taxes, check-offs 2) TX taxes tobacco, MO & AR 1% of sales tax generates 50-100 mill/yr, LA oil and gas tax

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Federal aid funding

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About 20% of funding comes from, all states receive it, Pittman-Robertson- in Alabama generated $9.5 million in 2011

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CARA lite: Conservation Trust Fund

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State Wildlife Grants- federal program, all states divide money, focuses mgmt on species in greatest need of conservation (before they become endangered)

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Cooperative Wildlife Research Units (1935)

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helps train wildlife professionals, Alabama unit established in Auburn in 1936

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7 Principles of the North American Model of Wildlife Conservation

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1) wildlife as a public trust resource (heart of the model) 2) elimination of markets for game 3) laws to regulate hunting 4) kill only for legitimate purposes 5) establishing wildlife as an international resource 6) science-based wildlife mgmt 7) democracy of hunting

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Forever Wild Land Trust

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interest from Alabama Trust Fund (usually < $15 M annually) provides the means for servicing state conservation and hunting lands from willing sellers; 1 million acres of public hunting lands or 15,000 per county;

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Forever Wild Stewardship Fund

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2nd fund to Forever Wild; once tracts are acquired, 15% of appraised value is transferred here

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Forever Wild purchases land for:

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nature preserves, recreation areas, state parks, and wildlife mgmt areas

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examples of Relative Economic values

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1) Pacific NW; wildlife & old growth ecosystems vs. timber industry and jobs 2) Alabama; AL sturgeon & AL beach mice (both endangered) vs. dredging for navigation 3) Arctic NWR; drilling for oil vs. wildlife and wilderness

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US Army Corps of Engineers

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Destroys bottomland habitats to create flood control projects; benefits > costs

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Mitigation

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compensating the environmental impact by replacing or substituting resources; economic units are habitat units

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Habitat Evaluation Procedures (HEP)

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used by the USFWS to calculate habitat units

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Habitat units

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obtained by multiplying the number of acres in the project by the Habitat Sustainability Index

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Total Benefit Value or Maximum Willingness to Pay

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the difference between the max amount a consumer would pay and the amount they actually pay for the commodity

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Direct Expenditures

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estimate amount spent on wildlife-related activities; value of wildlife is equivalent to the total spent

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National Survey of Fishing, Hunting & Wildlife-Associated Recreation

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survey showed that in Alabama: 5% decline in anglers, and 8% decline in hunters

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Soil Texture

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amounts of sand, silt, clay; Indirect- through effects on vegetation and plant communities; Direct- burrowing animals

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Soil Chemistry

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pH and nutrients; good soil nutrients=better quality and quantity of plant foods which support more/bigger animals; help increase carrying capacity

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Micronutrients

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Copper, zinc, iron, calcium; catalysts for various physiological functions

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Macronutrients

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Nitrogen, phosphorous, potassium; fertilization can help, but expensive on large scale

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Original Conversion of landscapes/habitats

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farms were small, changes created more habitat diversity, initially good for species that depended on early successional habitats

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Later Conversion of landscapes/habitats

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increased mechanization, landscape changed more quickly, larger fields, less habitat diversity, clean farming practices- use of herbicides, leave little to no buffers bordering fields,

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Large mechanized farming and ranching tends to:

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fragment habitats and decrease diversity of habitat

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Example of fragmentation

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Brown-headed cowbirds; increased parasitism in nests, fragments make nests easier to find

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Soil Bank Program

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29 million acres enrolled; retired land from production and required the land to be given adequate cover to reduce soil erosion; early successional species increased in abundance

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Conservation Reserve Program

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provides payments to farmers who stop ag. production and establish cover crop; usually enrolled for a 10 year period; reduces soil erosion, controls supply of ag. commodities, conserves wildlife

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Biofuels

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conversion of plant biomass to fuels like ethanol and methanol; makes better economic sense for farmers than CRP; takes land from CRP, monocultures

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Mandated by Energy Independence Security Act

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36 billion gallons of biofuels by 2022

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2 basic problems of using pesticides

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1) pesticides like DDT affected non-target organisms like wildlife 2) insects developed resistance: simplistic approach

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Integrated Pest Management

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use a combonation of chemical, cultural, and biological methods

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Proper food and nutrition has effects on

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growth and development, reproductive output, survival

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Selective feeding

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animals are able to select plant parts and foods with higher nutrient content

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featured species management

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single species; determine foods eaten and supply them

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Good food habits studied measure

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1) availability of foods 2) breeding status of the animals

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Food preferences

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anytime consumption of a food item is greater than its availability, then you can infer that the food is preferred; consumption > availability

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effects of nutrition

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1) reproduction 2) growth and development of young- early effects are long lasting

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Carbohydrates

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includes cellulose, starches, and sugars

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cellulose

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structural carbohydrate; cannot be digested by most vertebrates without certain bacteria in the digestive system to help break it down

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Increase retention time

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allowing more time to break down; increase length of small intestine

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Use micro-organisms

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(bacteria, fungi, protozoa) digest cellulose through fermentation

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Foregut fermenters

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or ruminants (4 chambered stomach); bovids ( cattle, sheep, antelope) and cervids (deer)

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Hindgut fermenters

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(enlarged colon or cecum) perissodactyls (horses, rhinos, tapirs)

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ferment in colon

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large animals (> 50kg)

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ferment in cecum

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small animals (< 50kg)

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Protein

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composed of amino acid groups (NH2 groups); animal tissues generally higher in protein than plants

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Legumes

answer

clover, alfalfa, beans, peas fix atmospheric N and are high in protein

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Fats

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contain >2 times the energy/unit weight as carbohydrates; fat deposits are a good way to store energy

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Trying to manage foods is a key element of

answer

featured species management

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Optimal foraging

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select the patch with the greatest return rate= maximize rate of energy intake

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Predation Risk

answer

great foraging habitats may be partly or completely avoided because of risk of predation

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Flocking

answer

decreases predation risk, and more time spent feeding and getting info

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Optimal flock size

answer

tradeoff between energy gains and competition for food

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Social dominance: advantages of higher status

answer

better habitats, less dispersal, better physical condition, less predation, increased survival and reproduction

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Behavioral adjustments

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1) selection of favorable microclimates (habitats); reduces heat loss/gain (ex. roost sites in winter) 2) changes in activity patterns; hot/cold environments

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Physiological adjustments

answer

1) reduce body temperature; conserves energy

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Storage

answer

when energy costs exceed intake

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When does storage happen?

answer

migration, winter, reproduction

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Migration- storage

answer

ex. Migrant warblers- consumption rate increases, feed on more profitable prey, the digestive system processes food more efficiently

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Winter-storage

answer

ex. Ptarmigan- winter on high arctic islands, fat accumulated in fall and early winter; helps balance energy expenses,

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Reproduction-storage

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ex. Wood ducks- fat helps meet the demands of reproduction, females accumulate fat on breeding areas, fat reserves provide 90% of lipid and energy requirements of producing 12 egg clutch

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Habitat

answer

a place where an animal lives, often characterized by a dominant plant form or a physical characteristic

question

Compare habitat use with habitat availability

answer

when use > availability we say the habitat is preferred

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Infer habitat quality by comparing differences in population characteristics like:

answer

breeding success, survival, and body condition

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Factors involved in habitat selection

answer

1) genetic: inherited or innate patterns 2) learning: from parents or social groups 3) competition: population density; dominance status

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Plants provide ____ as well as _____

answer

food; cover

question

Vegetative cover provides:

answer

shelter from the weather, and concealment from predators and prey

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What is the right mixture of preferred, good quality habitats?

answer

30% shrubs, 40% emergents, 25% water, and 5% trees

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Preferred habitat example: the Ruffed Grouse needs...

answer

forests of different age classes

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Mississippi Alluvial Valley wetlands provide wintering habitat for many ducks, the conditions of the wetlands affect...

answer

mallard winter survival and reproduction the next spring

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In relation to Bobwhites, Dry-hot conditions produce:

answer

fewer nesting attempts, high nest abandonment, and lower hatching success

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Precipitation affects:

answer

reduces availability of habitats and the food base, reduces food quantity and quality

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What is a wetland?

answer

lands that are transitional between terrestrial and aquatic systems where the water table is usually at or near the surface or the land is covered by shallow water.

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Hydrophyte

answer

any water loving plant

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Hydric soils

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usually saturated with water for a period of the year and has low oxygen

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Wetland types

answer

salt marsh, wet meadow, shrub swamp, wooded swamp

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Important functions of wetlands:

answer

flood control, reduce erosion, help maintain water quality by absorbing nutrients and other chemicals

question

North American Waterfowl Management Plan

answer

to manage and preserve wetlands to maintain viable waterfowl populations at population levels observed in the 1970s; accomplished through joint ventures.

question

Joint Ventures

answer

partnerships between state, federal, and private organizations that work together to purchase and restore wetlands

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Wetland Reserve Program

answer

administered by Natural Resources Conservation Service; provides technical and financial assistance to landowners; receive financial incentives to restore wetlands in exchange for retiring marginal land from agriculture;

question

3 options of WRP

answer

Permanent Easement, 30-year easement, or Cost-Share Agreement

question

Easement payments

answer

are equal to the lowest of 3 amounts; 1) agricultural value of the land, 2) established pay cap, 3) an amount offered by the landowner

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Population

answer

group of organisms of the same species that live together and reproduce and have little or no contact with other such groups

question

Birth and Immigration

answer

processes act to increase population size

question

Deaths and emigration

answer

processes act to decrease population size

question

If population size declines, the reason is that...

answer

D + E > B + I, and vice versa

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Population dynamics

answer

study of changes in numbers of individuals in a population and the factors influencing those changes.

question

Diagrammatic life table

answer

method of visualizing important population parameters

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Conventional life table

answer

describes the pattern of death by age class; it is a summary of the survivorship of a population

question

2 types of conventional life tables

answer

1) cohort/dynamic life table- data are collected by following a cohort throughout its life 2) time-specific/static life table- age structure of population is estimated at one point in time

question

cohort

answer

a group of individuals all born during the same time interval (same age)

question

fecundity rate (mx)

answer

average number of female offspring produced per female at age x

question

gross reproductive rate

answer

total number of female offspring that on average would be produced per female in the absence of mortality

question

realized fecundity (lxmx)

answer

the average number of female offspring that a female would be expected to produce at age x

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R0, net reproductive rate

answer

mean number of female offspring produced by a female in her lifetime (i.e. the replacement rate)

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Population growth: may be approximately continuous- dN/dt= B-D

answer

B=bN; D=dN

question

Exponential Growth

answer

dN/dt=(b-d)N or dN/dt=rN; "j-shaped" curve, the larger the population the faster its rate of increase

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Projecting Population size

answer

Nt=N0e^rt

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Discrete or geometric growth

answer

Nt+1= lambdaNt; some organisms reproduce in distinct seasons

question

Logistic Growth

answer

dN/dt= rN(1-N/k);

question

Environmental resistance

answer

(1-N/K)

question

Density Dependent factors

answer

"stabilizing factors"; biotic factors, factors that influence births, deaths, or both

question

Intrinsic mechanisms

answer

the individual's own response to density

question

2 forms of Intraspecific competition

answer

1) exploitation 2) interference

question

Exploitation

answer

each individual takes part of the resources, leaving less for others

question

Interference

answer

more a matter of direct interaction, defense of food, mates or space

question

Extrinsic mechanisms

answer

involves interactions with the rest of the community; predation, disease, interspecific competition

question

Density Independent

answer

nonstabilizing factors, abiotic factors; act to change population size independet of population size or density

question

Cooperative behavior: result of extreme competition

answer

lack of some critical resource, good quality breeding sites in short supply, so they help their parents raise young

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