U.S. Involvement in World War I – Flashcards
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Who determined the terms for peace in the post-war world?
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the Allies
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Who had to make many comprises at the peace conference?
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Woodrow Wilson
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What was Wilson's greatest dream?
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a League of Nations
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What was the League of Nations?
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an international organization that would work to ensure peace
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What did Wilson tell the Senate, which still had to approve the treaty?
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"America shall in truth show the way"
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Although worn out, who did Wilson go to for support?
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the American people
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What did Wilson set out on?
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an exhausting cross-country speaking tour
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How many miles did Wilson travel in 3 weeks?
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8,000 by train, from city to city, speaking several times a day
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What did Wilson's eloquent speeches ignore?
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some of the harsh provisions of the treaty
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Which audiences were welcoming, encouraging Wilson to push himself harder?
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Western audiences
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When did Wilson collapse?
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September 25, 1919, after speaking in Pueblo, Colorado
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What did Wilson suffer a few days after collapsing, upon returning to Washington?
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a stroke that left him partially paralyzed
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What did Wilson become?
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an invalid, often angry and bitter, for the rest of his presidency
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What did Wilson cut off?
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ties with his old friends and political allies
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What was Wilson openly?
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angry at his opponents
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What did Wilson refuse to do?
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compromise on changes to the treaty, which was then defeated
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Who never joined the League of Nations?
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the United States
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What was Wilson's only real reward for his efforts?
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the 1919 Nobel Peace Prize
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What did the 1919 Nobel Peace Prize call the League of Nations?
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"a design for bringing a fundamental law of humanity into present-day international politics"
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As World War I drew to a close, the scale of what was shocking?
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destruction and massive loss of life
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What did President Woodrow Wilson want?
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a "just and lasting peace" to ensure that a war like the Great War would never happen again
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When did Wilson outline his vision of world peace?
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in a speech made to Congress in January 1918, before the war ended
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What was Wilson's plan for peace called?
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the Fourteen Points
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What did Wilson's first point call for?
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open diplomacy
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What did Wilson's second point call for?
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freedom of the seas
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What did Wilson's third point call for?
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the removal of trade barriers
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What did Wilson's fourth point call for?
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the reduction of military arms
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What did Wilson's fifth point call for?
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a fair system to resolve disputes over colonies
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What did points 6-13 deal with?
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self-determination
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What is self-determination?
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the right of the people to decide their own political status
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What did Wilson want in Austria-Hungary?
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the different ethnic groups there to be able to form their own nations
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What did the fourteenth point call for?
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the establishment of the League of Nations
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What would the League be?
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an organization of nations that would work together to settle disputes, protect democracy, and prevent future wars
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Which point did Wilson believe to be the most important?
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the 14th
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What did the components of the Fourteen Points express?
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a new philosophy for U.S. foreign policy
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What did the Fourteen Points apply?
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the principles of progessivism to foreign policy
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What did the ideals of free trade, democracy, and self-determination spring from?
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the same ideals that Progressive reformers supported within the U.S.
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What did the Fourteen Points declare?
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that the foreign policy of a democratic nation should be based on morality - not just on what was best for that nation
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Who led the group of American negotiators who attended the peace conference that began in Paris in January 1919?
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President Wilson
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By attending the conference, what did Wilson become?
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the first U.S. president to visit Europe while in office
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Who criticized Wilson's decision to leave the country?
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Republicans
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What did Republicans argue it was more important for Wilson to do?
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to stay and help the nation restore its economy after the war
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What did Wilson have a dream of?
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international peace - he wanted to make this dream a reality
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What did Wilson believe that a lasting peace required?
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a fair and unbiased leader, such as himself, to attend the Paris Peace Conference
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What did Wilson feel that the European powers would do without him being at the conference?
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squabble over land and colonial rights
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When did the American delegation arrive in France?
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a few weeks before the conference was scheduled to begin
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What did President Wilson enjoy in Paris?
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a hero's welcome, in which thousands of Parisians lined the streets to cheer his arrival
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Before the conference began, where had Wilson traveled?
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London and Rome, and in each city, he received a heartfelt welcome
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When did the Paris Peace Conference begin?
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January 12, 1919
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Who attended the conference?
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leaders from 32 nations - representing about three-quarters of the world's population
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Who dominated the negotiations?
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the leaders of the victorious Allies
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Who were the leaders who dominated the negotiations?
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President Woodrow Wilson of the U.S., British prime minister David Lloyd George, French premier Georges Clemenceau, and Italian prime minister Vittorio Orlando
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What did the four leaders of the conference become known as?
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the Big Four
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Who wasn't invited to participate in the negotiations?
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Germany and the other Central Powers nations
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What did the delegates arrive with at the Paris Peace Conference?
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competing needs and desires
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What did President Wilson have?
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a vision of a better world where nations dealt with each other openly and traded with each other fairly, while at the same time reducing their arsenals of weapons
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What did many of the other Allies want?
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to punish Germany for its role in the war
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What did some leaders come to the Paris Peace Conference seeking?
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independence
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What did other leaders want?
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to build new nations, such as Yugoslavia and Czechoslovakia
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What did delegates from Poland, which had been divided between Germany and Russia during the war, want?
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to re-establish their nation
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What chef working at the Paris Ritz hotel asked the peacemakers to grant his nation independence from France?
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young Vietnamese Ho Chi Minh
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What would Ho Chi Minh later do?
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lead his people in taking Vietnamese indepence by force
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When did the Allies present their peace treaty to Germany?
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May
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What was the final treaty?
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much harsher than Wilson had wanted
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What did the treaty force Germany to do?
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pay the Allies reparations - payments for damages and expenses caused by the war
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What was significant about the reparations required of Germany?
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the amount far exceeded what the German government could actually afford to pay
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What did the Allies also demand of Germany?
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that it accept sole responsibility for starting the war
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What did the treaty establish?
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a League of Nations
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What did some ethnic groups in parts of Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Russia receive from the treaty?
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the right of self-determination
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How many new nations did the treaty create?
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nine, including Czechoslovakia, Poland, and Yugoslavia
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What did the Central Powers have to surender control of to the Allies?
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their colonies
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Who did the treaty place some of the colonies previously held by the Central Powers under the control of?
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the Allied nations until the colonies were deemed ready for independence
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Who strongly protested the terms of the treaty?
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Germany
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Why did German officials sign the Treaty of Versailles?
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they were threatened with French military action
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When did German officials sign the Treaty of Versailles?
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June 28, 1919
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What was Wilson disappointed at?
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the treaty's harshness - but he believed that the League of Nations could resolve any problems the treaty had created
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When did Wilson return to the United States?
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July 8, 1919
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Upon returning to the U.S., what did Wilson do?
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formally presented the treaty to the U.S. Senate (two days later)
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What did Wilson need to ratify the treaty?
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the support of both Republican and Democratic senators
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When had the Republicans won control of the Senate?
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1918 - getting their support proved difficult for the Democratic president
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Into how many groups did the senators divide?
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three
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What were the three groups the senators divided into?
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Democrats who supported immediate ratification of the treaty, irreconcilables who urged the outright rejection of U.S. participation in the League of Nations, and reservationists who would ratify the treaty only if changes were made
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What did the reservationists focus their criticism on?
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the part of the League of Nations charter that required its members to use military force to carry out the League's decisions
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What did some Republicans believe the requirement to use military force in the League charter conflicted with?
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the constitutional power of the U.S. Congress to declare war
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Who led the reservationists?
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Senator Henry Cabot Lodge
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What was Senator Henry Cabot Lodge the head of?
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the Committee on Foreign Relations
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What did Wilson refuse to do with the reservationists?
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compromise with them
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Where did Wilson take his case?
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directly to the American people
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In 22 days, what did Wilson urge the public to do?
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pressure Republican senators to ratify the treaty - gave 32 major speeches
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What did Wilson warn of if the world's nations did not work together in the future?
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serious consequences
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What did Wilson's speaking schedule take a heavy toll on?
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his health
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After suffering from a stroke in early October (1919), where did Wilson spend the rest of his term?
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living privately in the White House
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Who were the only people not cut off from Wilson?
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his wife and his closest aides
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What did Senator Lodge present in November 1919?
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the treaty to the U.S. Senate for ratification
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What did Lodge include in his presentation of the treaty?
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a list of 14 reservations, or concerns about the treaty
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Following Wilson's instructions, what did the Senate do?
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rejected Lodge's revised treaty on November 19 and again in March 1920
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After Wilson left office in 1921, what do the United States do?
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signed separate peace treaties with Austria, Germany, and Hungary
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Without the U.S., what was uncertain of the League?
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its ability to keep world peace
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By the end of the war, how many people had died?
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14 million - 7 million were permanently disabled
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How much did the war cost?
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more than $280 billion - more than any previous war in history
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When the war ended, what were Americans eager to return to?
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normal life
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What did the war do to the world?
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changed it - there was no going back to the way things had once been
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What did the war lead to the overthowing of?
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the monarchies in Russia, Austria-Hungary, Germany, and the Ottoman Empire
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What did the war contribute to?
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the rise of the Bolsheviks to power in Russia in 1917
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Where did the war fan the flames of revolts against colonialism?
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the Middle East and in Southeast Asia
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What did World War I devastate?
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European economies
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Who emerged as the world's leading economic power?
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the United States
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Despite new financial power, what did the U.S. still face at home?
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economic challenges - the demand for consumer goods increased as Americans raced to buy items that had been in short supply during the war - lead to inflation - many Americans then struggled to afford ordinary, day-to-day items
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Who were particularly hit hard when the postwar markets no longer needed to buy their food?
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the farmers - they had increased production to meet the needs of European markets during the war
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Despite economic setbacks, what did most Americans see the new decade as?
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a time of peace and prosperity
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How many women did the war draw into the American workforce?
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more than a million
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What did women's service to the nation contribute to?
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the passage of the 19th amendment, which gave them the right to vote (ratified in 1920)
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What did the war encourage African Americans to do?
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to move to northern cities in search of factory work - changed the population patterns of northern cities and led to new and often uneasy race relations
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What did European nations lose?
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almost an entire generation of young men
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Where did most of the combat take place?
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France - it was in ruins
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How was Britain financially after the war?
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deeply in debt to the United States and lost its position as the world's financial center
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What were the reparations imposed on Germany?
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crippling
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What would WWI not be?
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the "war to end all wars"
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Why would world conflict break out in Europe again within a generation?
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there were too many issues left unresolved and too much anger and hostility remaining
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Who most strongly voiced the opposition to the League?
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Senator Henry Cabot Lodge
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Who did Wilson call on to join the war effort?
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everyone
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To help pay for the war, what did Wilson launch?
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four bond drives to sell Liberty bonds
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What were the Liberty bonds?
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a form of loan to the government
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In schools, what did children fill Liberty Books with?
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25-cent stamps until they were full and could be exchanged for a bond
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What was the slogan for the Liberty Books?
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"Lick a Stamp and Lick the Kaiser"
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What were campaigns to sell bonds?
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intense
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What did bond organizers send out?
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workers to sell in workplaces, neighborhoods, and theaters
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Who appeared at rallies flanked by doughboys in uniform and asked their audiences to buy bonds?
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celebrities from movie stars to baseball players to opera singers
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Where were some of the largest rallies held?
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Manhattan
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What was Douglas Fairbanks known for playing?
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swashbuckling heroes
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What did artists and advertising experts produce?
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slogans and colorful propaganda posters - appealed to patriotism, fear, or sympathy for war victims in Europe
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How much money did the bond drives bring in?
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almost $17 billion
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What was going to war?
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an enormously expensive undertaking
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What was one of the first things President Wilson and his advisers had to do after joining the war?
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figure out how to pay for it
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What did the War Revenue Act of 1917 do?
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established very high taxes and taxed the wealthiest Americans as much as 77% of their annual income
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By how much did the War Revenue Act of 1917 increase federal revenues in two years?
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400%
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What did the government borrow to pay for the war?
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money
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What was the national debt prior to entering the war?
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$1.2 billion (1916)
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What was the national debt after the war?
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$25.5 billion (1919)
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To whom was the majority of post-war American debt owed to?
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Americans who had purchased Liberty bonds - a loan from the American people to the federal government
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Why did the Wilson administration prepare the nation's industries for war?
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to make sure that the troops received all the supplies they needed
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What did Congress create to regulate both industrial and agricultural production and distribution?
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hundreds of administrative boards
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What was one of the most powerful boards?
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the War Industries Board (WIB)
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What did the War Industries Board have the authority to do?
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regulate all materials needed in the war effort
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Who was the head of the WIB?
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Wall Street business leader Bernard Baruch
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How did Bernard Baruch explain the WIB's power?
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"No steel, copper, cement, rubber, or other basic materials could be used without our approval"
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The policies and rules of the WIB increased American industrial production by what percent?
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about 20%
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When could goods be used by civilians?
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once the military's needs were met
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What did Congress pass to make sure that the troops would have plenty of food and supplies?
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the Lever Food and Fuel Control Act
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What did the Lever Food and Fuel Control Act give the government the power to do?
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set prices and establish production controls for food and for the fuels needed to run military machines
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What did Wilson's administration create to manage and increase food production?
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agencies
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Who led the Food Administration?
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Herbert Hoover
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What was the slogan of the Food Administration?
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"Food Can Win the War"
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What were Hoover's goals?
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to increase the production of crops and to conserve existing food supplies for the military and for American allies
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In order to encourage wartime production, what did Hoover promise farmers?
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higher prices for their crops - farm production soared
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What did Hoover ask Americans?
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to plant vegetables at home in "victory gardens"
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What did Hoover urge Americans to do?
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eat less by participating in "meatless Mondays" and "wheatless Wednesdays"
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How much more food did the U.S. export by 1918 compared to what it had exported prior to the war?
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three times as much
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At the time, what was prohibition?
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another proposal to conserve food supplies
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What is most alcohol made with?
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food crops such as grapes and wheat
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Days after entering the war, what did Congress limit?
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the alcohol content of wine and beer so that these crops could be used for food production instead
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How did some progressives try to discourage Americans from drinking beer?
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by linking German Americans to the brewing industry - they hoped anti-German feelings would lead Americans to stop drinking beer
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As the war continued, what gained strength?
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the temperance movement
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What did the 18th amendment, ratified in 1919, ban?
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the "manufacture, sale or transportation" of alcohol
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What gave the government the authority to enforce the prohibition on alcohol?
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the Volstead Act (1919)
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What was established to set production goals and prices for fuels?
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the Fuel Administration
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What was the purpose of the Fuel Administration?
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to make sure that military needs for fuel could always be met
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Who headed the Fuel Administration?
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Harry Garfield
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To encourage fuel conservation, what did Garfield introduce?
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daylight saving time in order to extend daylight hours
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What did Harry Garfield's publicity campaigns call for?
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"gasless Sundays" and "heatless Mondays"
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How was the federal government quickly able to produce and collect the supplies needed for the war effort?
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by creating various boards and agencies
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Who became the major supplier for the Allied Powers?
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the U.S.
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How many rounds of ammunition did Great Britain receive from the U.S.?
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more than 1 billion
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How many rifles did Great Britain receive from the U.S.?
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1.2 million
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How many tons of explosives did Great Britain receive from the U.S.?
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more than half a million
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What became a much-needed boost for the struggling Allies and a boost for the American economy as well?
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the power of U.S. manufacturing
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What skyrocketed during the war?
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the profits of many major industrial corporations - they sold their products to the federal government - created enormous profits for stockholders of industries such as chemicals, oil, and steel
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What happened to the wages for factory workers?
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they increased
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What meant the workers were hardly better off than they had been before the war?
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the rising cost of food and housing
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What did war demands lead to laborers doing?
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working long hours, sometimes in increasingly dangerous conditions
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What led to a faster pace of production?
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the urgent need to produce materials for the war and the great financial incentive for companies to do
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What did the harsher working conditions lead to?
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many workers joining labor unions
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By how much did union membership increase by between 1916 and 1919?
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about 60%
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What boomed during the war?
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union activities - more than 6,000 strikes were being held during the war
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What was essential to the war effort?
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massive industrial production
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What did leaders fear?
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that industrial protests such as strikes would disrupt the war effort
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To keep industrial disruptions to a minimum, what did the Wilson administration create?
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the National War Labor Board (1918)
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What did the National War Labor Board do?
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judged disputes between workers and management
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During the short time that the National War Labor Board was in operation (less than a year), how many cases did it handle?
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some 1,200 cases involving 700,000 workers
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What did the National War Labor Board set?
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policies that sought to improve working conditions for all Americans - established the eight-hour workday, urged that businesses recognize labor unions, and promoted equal pay for women who did equal work
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As men left their jobs to fight on the war front, who moved into them to keep the American economy moving?
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women
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What jobs traditionally held by men did women take on?
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working on railroads, at docks, and in factories
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What traditional jobs did women fill?
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working as teachers and nurses
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What volunteer positions did women take on?
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helping to sell Liberty bonds and digging victory gardens
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How many women entered the workforce during the war?
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about 1 million
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What did most women do after the war had ended?
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left the jobs they had taken - most by choice, others by force (employers wanted to return the jobs to men who had served in the war)
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Who said "This war could not have been fought ... if it had not been for the services of women rendered in every sphere?"
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President Wilson
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What was the war effort seriously affected by?
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an extremely severe flu epidemic that broke out between 1918 and 1919
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In Europe, where did the disease quickly spread?
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across the Western Front - crowded and unsanitary trenches were perfect breeding grounds for the disease
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Of all the Americans who had lost their lives in WWI, about half of them died from what?
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influenza
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When did an army private in Kansas complain of flulike symptoms?
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March 11, 1918 - by the end of the week, more than 500 soldiers had come down with influenza
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By August 1918, where was influenza reported?
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Philadelphia and Boston
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What did this form of influenza do?
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kill healthy people within days
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How many Americans died from influenza in October 1918?
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200,000
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What did panicked city leaders do?
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cancel public gatherings - the disease still spread
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What spread almost as quickly as the disease?
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rumors
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Who wrongly blamed Germans for causing the disease?
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Lieutenant Colonel Philip Doane and many others
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How many Americans died from influenza?
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675,000 - deadliest epidemic in U.S. history
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What did President Wilson move quickly to do after Congress declared war?
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build public support - Americans had been in favor of neutrality - now they had to be convinced of their duty to support the war
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What did Wilson create less than two weeks after the U.S. declared war?
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the Committee on Public Information (CPI)
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Who was appointed to head the CPI?
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newspaper reporter and political reformer George Creel
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What did George Creel begin?
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a nationwide campaign of propaganda - posters, newspaper stories, speeches, and other materials designed to influence people's opinions - meant to encourage Americans to support the war
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Who did Creel hire to speak on behalf of the war effort?
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popular movie stars such as Mary Pickford and Douglas Fairbanks
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The CPI hired artists to do what?
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create patriotic posters and pamphlets
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Who is responsible for Uncle Sam's "I Want You for the U.S. Army?"
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James Montgomery Flagg
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As many Americans became more patriotic and supportive of the war, some began to do what?
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distrust all things German - tried to eliminate German influence from American culture
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What did many schools stop doing?
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teaching the German language
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What did many symphonies stop doing?
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playing music written by German composers
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What German items were renamed to sound patriotic?
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sauerkraut (liberty cabbage) - dachshunds (liberty pups) - hamburger (liberty steak)
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Anti-German feelings continued to grow after what?
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reports spread that secret agents from Germany were operating in the United States
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What was one of the worst acts of sabotage?
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German agents planted a bomb at a ship-loading terminal in New York City - destroyed $20 million worth of supplies for the war - killed three dock workers - shattered windows in buildings across lower Manhattan
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What did some Americans begin to do?
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question the loyalty of German Americans in their communities
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What did some German Americans experience?
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discrimination and violence
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Who was lynched by a mob in Illinois because townspeople suspected him of being a German spy?
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socialist coal miner Robert Prager (April 1918)
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Who spoke out against the war?
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reformer Jane Addams and Senator Robert La Follete
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Who founded the Women's International League for Peace and Freedom?
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Jane Addams
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What did the Wilson administration try to limit?
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public opposition to the war
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What did the Espionage Act (1917) do?
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punished people for aiding the enemy, refusing military duty, or interfering with the war effort
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What did the Sedition Act (1918) do?
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made it illegal for Americans to "utter, print, write, or publish any disloyal ... or abusive language" criticizing the government, the flag, or the military
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How many opponents of the war were jailed under the Espionage Act or Sedition Act?
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more than 1,000
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Who directed a film on the American Revolution called "The Spirit of '76" and was jailed for three years because he refused to remove scenes of British brutality from the movie?
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Robert Goldstein
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Who was sentenced to prison for 10 years for criticizing the United States government's prosecution of Americans under the Espionage Act?
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Eugene V. Debs - released from prison by a presidential order
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What did some Americans believe the Espionage Act and Sedition Act violated?
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the 1st amendment - others thought these laws were essential to protect military secrets, the safety of American soldiers, and the overall U.S. war effort
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Who struggled to interpret the Espionage Act and Sedition Act?
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the Supreme Court
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Who was convicted of violating the Espionage Act because he organized the printing and distribution of 15,000 leaflets opposing government war policies?
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Charles Schenck
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What did Schenck challenge his conviction as?
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a violation of his constitutional right to free speech
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Who wrote the Court's unanimous opinion in Schenck v. United States, upholding Schenck's conviction and explaining the limits to free speech?
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Justice Oliver Wendell Holmes Jr.
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How did Holmes explain the limits to free speech?
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things that can safely be said in peacetime can cause problems for the government and danger for soldiers in wartime - limits need to be placed on free speech rights during wartime to ensure the country's overall safety
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In New York Harbor on Saturday, May 1, 1915, some 1,900 passengers did what?
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boarder the British luxury ship Lusitania and headed for a war zone
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What was the Lusitania's destination?
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Great Britain
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How did a spokesperson for the ship's company reassure nervous passengers?
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by saying "The Lusitania ... is too fast for any German submarine."
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When was the Lusitania sunk?
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May 7, 1915 - it was approaching the British Isles
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Who spotted ominous air bubbles and streaks in the water below the Lusitania?
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crew member Leslie Morton - grabbed a megaphone and shouted, "Torpedoes coming!"
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How long after it was torpedoed did the Lusitania sink?
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18 minutes
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How many people died in the Lusitania?
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1,200 people - 128 of them were Americans
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Before the sinking of the Lusitania, what did Americans think of the war as?
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a European conflict that had little effect on life in the United States
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Just after the war began, what did President Wilson declare?
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that the United States would remain neutral
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What did Wilson's response to the war reflect?
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a long-standing American tradition of isolationism - a policy of not being involved in the affairs of other nations
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Privately, what did Wilson favor?
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the Allied cause
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What was Wilson extremely concerned about?
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Germany's war tactics and its invasion of Belgium
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What was the United States far from financially?
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neutral
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What did the British fleet blockade?
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German ports and transportation routes - few American businesses could sell goods to German forces - far easier to supply the Allies
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By 1917, what was the worth of war goods bought by Britain from American businesses each week?
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$75 millon
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How did Germany plan to wage its naval war?
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with U-boats - small submarines
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What did the German government announce in February 1915?
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the waters around Britain would be a war zone in which Germany would destroy all enemy ships - Germany warned the United States that neutral ships might be attacked as well - unrestriced submarine warfare
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What did the German plan for unrestricted submarine warfare do to most Americans?
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angered them
question
What did Wilson believe Germany's actions violated?
answer
the laws of neutrality - warned Germany that he would hold the nation responsible if American lives were lost - tensions rising
question
What was the American public outraged by?
answer
the 1915 sinking of the Lusitania - President Wilson demaded an end to unrestricted submarine warfare
question
Why did the German goverment agree to attack only supply ships?
answer
it was facing international criticism
question
When did Germany attack the French passenger ship Sussex?
answer
March 24, 1916 - killed about 80 people
question
After the attack on the Sussex, what did Wilson threaten to end?
answer
diplomatic relations with Germany unless it stopped killing innocent civilians
question
What did Germany promise to do in the Sussex pledge?
answer
not to sink merchant vessels "without warning and without saving human lives"
question
Why did German officials issue the Sussex pledge?
answer
they feared the United States might enter the war
question
As he campaigned during the election of 1916, what did Wilson assure Americans?
answer
that he would not send their sons to die in Europe
question
Who was Wilson's chief rival in the election of 1916?
answer
Republican candidate Charles Evans Hughes - took a stronger pro-war stance
question
Once re-elected, what did Wilson begin to work for?
answer
a peace settlement
question
What did Wilson ask Allied and Central Powers in January 1917?
answer
to accept a "peace without victory" - angered the Allies - they blamed the Central Powers for starting the war and wanted them to pay for wartime damage and destruction
question
When did Germany resume unrestricted submarine warfare?
answer
February 1, 1917 - the United States ended diplomatic relations with Germany two days later - Wilson asked Congress for the authority to install guns on U.S. merchant ships
question
Who was the German foreign secretary who sent a telegram to Mexico?
answer
Arthur Zimmermann
question
What did the Zimmermann Note propose?
answer
an alliance between Germany and Mexico - Mexico was to reconquer the lost territory in New Mexico, Texas, and Arizona
question
What did the Germans hope an American war with Mexico would do?
answer
keep the United States out of the war in Europe
question
When did the United States declare war?
answer
April 6, 1917
question
When did Congress pass the Selective Service Act?
answer
May 18, 1917
