Theories and Methods in Counseling Essay Example

thought processes. Consequently, this development has resulted in the creation of novel approaches and therapies.

The text discusses the changes in society alongside the legal and ethical questions that have arisen. It then moves on to explore general Biblical concepts before concluding with the author's personal reflection on counseling. In the field of counseling, it is important to be open to various therapeutic approaches, but this can only be done effectively with an understanding of their origins and how they should be applied. Additionally, the pressures of addressing specific issues within limited time frames require counselors who are well-grounded intellectually and spiritually. One influential theory in counseling is Psychoanalytic, which was developed by Sigmund Freud based on his experiences treating patients with mental illnesses and their discussions of dreams and fantasies.

Freud believed that the first six years of development involve experiencing sexual pleasure in various body parts (Berger, 2008). These stages include the oral stage from birth to one year, the anal stage from one to three years, the phallic stage from three to six years, the latency stage from six to eleven years, and the genital stage during adolescence and adulthood. When conflicts in these stages remain unresolved, problems can arise (Berger, 2008). Unresolved conflicts may manifest through unconscious means like dreams, fantasies, slips of the tongue, and symbolic symptoms. Additionally, they can be revealed through free association, projection, and posthypnotic suggestion symptoms (Corey, 2009).

This approach suggests that resolving neurotic symptoms can be achieved by accessing the unconscious mind. In this process, the therapist plays the role of a "blank screen" where "transference" can occur, initiating the process of change. This is a lengthy procedure

(Jones & Butman, 2011) that requires a qualified therapist and a willing client (Corey, 2005). Freud also contributed to modern psychology with his concepts of the "id", representing instinctual and primary source of psychic energy; the "ego", which mediates with the external world and offers executive control; and the "superego", housing the moral code used to judge actions as right or wrong, good or bad (Corey, 2009). The aforementioned process of "working through" is known as "catharsis", involving the release of energy from the "id" in appropriate ways (Jones & Butman, 2011).

Freud and Erikson both emphasized the importance of resolving unconscious conflicts and psychological development. While Freud did not use the term "catharsis" in the Stoic sense, he focused on separating emotions from external material attachments. His goal was to reconcile the unconscious with the conscious, allowing behavior to be based on reality rather than instincts or guilt. Similarly, Erikson believed that problems in adulthood stemmed from unresolved childhood conflicts. In developing his eight stages of development, Erikson drew parallels to Freud's early stages of psychosexual development.

However, Erikson's perspective on conflicts in development was culturally and family-oriented, and was considered psychosocial (Berger, 2008). He aimed for conflict resolution in each stage of development, acknowledging the conflicts as trust vs. mistrust, autonomy vs. shame and doubt, and imitative vs.

According to Corey (2009), there are several stages of psychosocial development: guilt, industry versus inferiority, identity versus role confusion, intimacy versus isolation, generativity versus stagnation, and integrity versus despair.

Psychoanalytic theory, championed by Sigmund Freud, gained widespread popularity and captivated people's imagination. However, John Watson's behaviorism movement, which advocated for studying observable phenomena and formulating laws based on

them, challenged Freud's ideas. Watson believed that psychology should focus solely on things that can be observed (Berger, 2008, p. 38). Thus, the field embarked on a quest to uncover the laws governing human behavior and cognition (Berger, 2008).

The focus of this new science was to understand how learning took place as researchers, also known as "learning theorists", believed that behavior is learned. By observing both humans and animals, they hoped to uncover clues to this mystery. Ivan Pavlov, a Nobel Prize winner known for his insights into animal digestion, discovered "conditioning" – the process by which certain stimuli consistently elicit certain responses (Berger, 2008). This explanation of behavior, known as classical conditioning or respondent conditioning (Corey, 2005), became widely accepted but was not comprehensive.

B. F. Skinner argues that classical conditioning has limitations when it comes to explaining behavior in complex situations. Nonetheless, behavior can be altered by utilizing rewards or avoiding negative stimuli, which is referred to as operant conditioning or "instrumental conditioning."

The concept of reinforcement was introduced to replace the idea of reward, as it may not always happen right after an action. Reinforcement can be positive or negative and has a significant impact on behavior (Corey, 2009). The emergence of behaviorism theory (BT) led to disagreements with psychoanalytic theory (PT) in multiple areas. PT sees the unconscious mind as unknowable and obstructive to personal growth, while BT believes it can be comprehended. PT regards observed behavior as a symptom, whereas BT concentrates solely on actions (Corey, 2009).

PT argues that childhood experiences have a lasting impact on one's entire life, while BT focuses on current conditioning to undo and reverse learned habits

and patterns from childhood. The final dispute is intriguing due to its wide-ranging implications. PT relies on ancient myths, the words of disturbed adults, dreams, and more as sources of evidence, while BT prides itself on being a scientific approach, relying on verifiable data and controlled experiments. BT discards ideas that may sound good but lack proof. Behaviourism gained acceptance and continued to grow as both a theory and a science.

The mechanistic view of conditioning, although accurate, cannot fully explain all behaviors. It is possible for individuals to acquire knowledge without receiving rewards or reinforcement. Through observations of animals and humans, a new perspective called cognitive theory has emerged. This theory focuses on understanding the functioning of the thought process. Researchers have become interested in why people possess different ways of thinking, how their unique cognitive processes are developed, and how they are organized. Jean Piaget was an early pioneer in this field and emphasized the significant influence of thoughts and expectations on one's actions, assumptions, beliefs, and values (Berger, 2008). Cognitive theory also recognizes that people's thought processes can evolve over time and through experiences.

According to Piaget, cognitive development is influenced by changes in thought processes, which in turn affect behavior. Piaget identified four main periods of cognitive development: sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational. In the sensorimotor stage, which lasts from birth to two years old, learning is active but lacks conceptual or reflective thought. The preoperational stage, from ages two to six, involves the use of language to understand the egocentric world. From ages six to eleven, children enter the concrete operational stage and apply logic to interpret experiences objectively, although

their thinking is limited to their immediate environment. At twelve years old and beyond, the formal operational stage begins and continues throughout one's life. During this stage, individuals reason analytically and emotionally about abstract and hypothetical concepts.

Piaget's theory suggests that intellectual advancement occurs when individuals strive for cognitive equilibrium by making sense of new experiences based on preexisting ideas, a process known as assimilation (Berger, 2008).

According to Berger (2008, p. 45), individuals who are unable to incorporate new experiences may have to modify their current ideas in order to achieve "accommodation". In essence, cognitive theory proposes that development occurs through actively engaging with novel and demanding concepts, while the psychoanalytic approach suggests that maturity is essential for growth, and behaviorism asserts that repetition plays a vital role in development (Berger, 2008). These three major theories were developed almost a century ago and laid the foundation for subsequent advancements.

Lev Vygotsky's sociocultural theory emerged from a shift in focus from the individual to the influence of others on personal development. Initially working in relative obscurity during the Cold War in Soviet Russia, Vygotsky's ideas only became widely accessible after the conflict (Berger, 2008). Vygotsky conducted observations on a diverse group of individuals, ranging from economically disadvantaged individuals to children with mental disabilities (Berger, 2008). His theory is founded upon the belief that individuals must acquire specific capabilities and knowledge in order to effectively function within their respective societies. This acquisition is facilitated by various guides, such as teachers, friends, and strangers, who assist novices in navigating societal norms and expectations.

Together, they provide "guided participation" to assist beginners in learning in an informal manner. This concept must be

combined with the notion of the "zone of proximal development" (ZPD), where the student should be situated within the "zone," a range where the material is unfamiliar but not too challenging at that specific time. A significant departure from prominent theories is that guided participation is an interactive process that allows both the student and the teacher to learn from each other (Berger, 2008). This theory possesses considerable merit and can be observed in everyday society. However, there is a concern that the values of the specific society itself may be questionable (Berger, 2008).

Epigenetic theory is a recent theory that incorporates concepts from biology, genetics, and chemistry. It posits that genes interact with the environment to facilitate development (Gottlieb, 2003), thus influencing all physical and psychological traits. The interaction between genes and development determines a specific range of outcomes, referred to as a "reaction range". It is important to note that possessing a genetic predisposition does not guarantee the manifestation of a specific trait or behavior such as addiction (Berger, 2008).

The following sections will introduce the reader to some modern day therapies found in psychology. These therapies are not an exhaustive list. One of these methods is Existential Therapy, which is more of a philosophical approach rather than a major psychological theory (Wilks, 2003). However, it is worth mentioning because it has a role in counseling. The essence of this therapy lies in the belief that each individual possesses free will and that life is not predetermined (Corey, 2009). The initial step involves assisting the client in identifying areas where they have given up control. This marks the beginning of discovering their full potential. The

next step is to encourage them to actively pursue this potential (Fernando, 2007). The counselor utilizes insightful techniques to convey the core concepts of freedom and responsibility to the client (Fernando, 2007).

According to Fernando (2007), the existential approach highlights the idea that suffering has significance and can be a powerful catalyst for transformation. Additionally, behavior therapy is rooted in behaviorism and is attributed to B. F.

Skinner and Albert Bandura expanded on the original premise, with Albert Bandura developing social learning theory that combined classical and operant conditioning with observational learning (Corey, 2009). This therapy believes that the individual is both the producer and product of their environment (Corey, 2009, p. 237). As a result, the goals of this therapy are to increase personal choice for the client and create new conditions for learning (Corey, 2009). Cognitive behavior therapy is an extension of behavior therapy.

Albert Ellis developed rational emotive behavior therapy (REBT), Aaron T. Beck developed cognitive therapy (CT), and Donald Meichenbaum developed cognitive behavior therapy (CBT) (Corey, 2009). These approaches are all short term and share the following characteristics: collaboration between therapist and client, belief that psychological distress is caused by cognitive disturbances, changing thoughts can lead to improvement, and the goal is to solve a specific problem in a short time (Corey, 2009). The client plays an active role in the process, including completing homework. Some argue that these theories do not propose objective truth, but rather provide a narrative structure (Hansen, 2006). Research is being conducted on "third wave" or mindfulness-based cognitive therapy, which shows promise and focuses on changing one's relationship to inner experiences (Bhanji, 2011).

65) The focus is on changing thought

content rather than modifying it. Legal concerns arise when incorporating theory into a method and starting therapeutic processes. Differentiating between legal and ethical issues is crucial, as they are closely interconnected and often overlap (Corey, G.).

, According to Corey and Callanan (2011), therapists are expected to comply with federal and state laws such as the Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act and HIPAA. They must also adhere to state licensure boards, which include continuing education responsibilities (The Pennsylvania Code, 2012). Additionally, therapists have a duty to warn and protect in cases of harm or threats of harm (Corey, et al., 2011).

Legal contests involving student counseling or mental health services have led to lawsuits involving universities like Brown, Harvard, and Massachusetts Institute of Technology (Affsprung, 2010). These legal challenges, along with therapists interacting with clients dealing with important life issues (Kaslow, 2006), highlight the need for practitioners to seek guidance from qualified legal counsel (Woody, 2008).

The therapy landscape is being transformed by increased government intervention and the involvement of third parties, both in the United States and globally. In Britain, psychoanalysts are currently facing government efforts to regulate psychotherapy through a Health Professions Council (HPC), as reported by Ian Parker (2007, p. 76). The legal aspects of therapy can be daunting, and one perspective suggests that psychologists may benefit more from ethics-based training rather than just legal training, to ensure a clearer understanding of ethical principles amidst legal complexities (Corey, et al.).

, 2011, p. 158). There may be situations where legal and ethical concerns clash, making it difficult to find a straightforward solution. It is important to maintain accurate record keeping and conduct honest self-assessment

to ensure compliance with the expected standard of care (Corey, et al., 2011).

The therapist is trained in theories and therapies before learning about legal matters and ethical considerations. In the realm of ethics, the therapist has the opportunity to exercise control and make decisions based on "right conduct" (Corey, et al., 2011, p. 14). To initiate the therapeutic relationship, it is important to discuss and agree upon "Informed Consent" with the client (Corey, et al.).

According to Younggren, Fisher, Foote, and Hjelt (2011, p. 166), the process of establishing the ethical principle of "autonomy" should begin in 2011. The minimum guidelines for this are outlined in the American Psychological Association (APA) publication "Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct" (2010). In addition to this source, it is also important to consult additional ethical guidelines from the American Counseling Association (ACA) (2005) and the American Association of Christian Counselors (AACC) (2004) regarding informed consent.

During the process of obtaining informed consent, it is important to consider the legal aspects of the relationship (Corey, et al., 2011). Furthermore, the selection of a therapy method raises ethical concerns, as counseling practices have become increasingly diverse and it is essential for counselors to choose a method that aligns with their expertise (ACA, 2005). Additionally, counselors must maintain thorough documentation and records, including the rationale behind their choice of therapeutic methodology (ACA, 2005). It is also crucial to acknowledge the responsibilities of the patient, which are often overlooked (Younggren et al., [year]).

In some cases, therapy may be terminated due to lack of cooperation from the client (Younggren et. al, 2011). However, clients can have a Psychiatric Advance Directive (PAD) in

place to outline the necessary treatments and steps to be taken, as well as designate a proxy decision maker, in case of a crisis relapse (Nicaise, Lorant, ; Dubois, 2013). It is also important that the client receives Informed Consent in language that is easily understood (Younggren et. al, 2011).

Although it has already been mentioned in this paper, there will be conflicts between legal and ethical concerns that will require therapists to make difficult decisions. It is extremely important for counselors to be aware of these ethical and legal concerns. However, it is also crucial that they do not allow these concerns to hinder the effectiveness of their practice (Corey, et al., 2011). Another important source of information that has not been presented in this paper is the Biblical perspective.

Freud, who is known as the pioneer of modern psychotherapy, held the belief that God was merely an illusion (Jones ; Butman, 2011), suggesting that a belief in God was no longer necessary in modern times. However, this notion is far from accurate, considering that Freud himself relied on God for his own existence as stated in scripture (Gen 1:26, King James Version). It would have been beneficial for Freud to have a deeper understanding of scripture, which teaches that wisdom comes from God (James 1:5), particularly when exploring the operation of the human mind. Instead, Freud drew his own conclusions without seeking the guidance of the Holy Spirit. It is quite noteworthy that despite admitting that the ultimate outcome of his analysis only resulted in the exchange of neurotic misery for everyday unhappiness (Jones ; Butman, 2011, Model of Psychotherapy, para. , 8), his

views were widely accepted.

In addition, Freud's personal rejection of God prevented him from experiencing joy, as mentioned in Romans 14:17. Followers of Freud also neglected to incorporate Biblical perspectives on life, resulting in significant gaps in the development of a unified framework for life. By presuming to possess knowledge, they disregarded scripture once more and overlooked the message that says, "For who can know the mind of the Lord? Or who has been his counselor" (Rom. 11:34)? Nonetheless, there is merit in the ideas and contributions of all theorists and influencers in modern therapy.

A Christian acknowledges their limited understanding and seeks God's discernment as mentioned in Proverbs 2:6. The number of published articles on spirituality is increasing, which is encouraging, even though not all of them are Biblically based (Powers, 2005). Through this assignment, I have gained a better understanding of the theories and methods utilized in psychotherapy. Therapists hold a significant role in individuals' lives within the therapeutic setting (Wilks & Rahteal, 2009). I am aware of the need to protect my heart (Proverbs 4:23) as it can lead me astray and result in harmful decisions. Furthermore, I understand the importance of seeking guidance from the Lord through prayer.

It has also served as a cautionary tale not to rely solely on my own understanding from a scriptural perspective. The scripture states, "Without counsel, plans go awry, but in the multitude of counselors, they are established" (Proverbs 15:22). Additionally, I believe it is crucial to acknowledge the role of sin in disorder and the resulting cognitive effects it can have (Mutter, 2012).

I firmly believe that integration is essential in counseling. Without it, all therapies become

mere narratives aimed at self-interest. As accurately expressed by Ruzicka (2010), "Education which is not based on caring love causes harm and moral decay" (p. 199).

In my research for this paper, I came across an article discussing the concept of "virtue ethics." According to the article, individuals can "...with guidance and practice... grow in goodness, becoming more fully what human beings are supposed to be" (Stewart-Sicking, 2008, p.

According to the article, the modern era emphasizes the use of reason to comprehend life. However, reason alone cannot determine an individual's purpose or identity. Furthermore, ethical statements are now seen as subjective personal preferences. In this context, secular therapists assist their clients in achieving goals that align with the client's own desires, without any moral obligations or communal responsibilities. Overall, the secular counseling profession relies on theories rooted in reason and guided by ethical standards.

If all can be achieved through reason, why isn't there a "Code of Reason"? The reason is clear; man is not God. We cannot comprehend what we don't know. As an individual, I acknowledge my limitations and the need to seek understanding beyond myself. I believe that God uses people to assist others and grants wisdom to those who ask for it. My academic journey has expanded my knowledge and comprehension thus far. I pray that humility and a willingness to embrace God's truth will guide all my actions, particularly in my efforts to support others.

References

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