TEAS Human Anatomy and Physiology – Flashcards
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All cells contain 3 things. These three things are?
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DNA, RNA, and synthesize proteins
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The cell is filled with a fluid called?
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cytoplasm or cytosol
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A membrane is composed of?
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phospholipids
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Each cell consists of? (3)
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nucleic acids, cytoplasm, and cell membrane
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What is the one thing that all cells have in common?
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They have a cell membrane
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Nucleus
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small structure that contains chromosomes and regulates the cell
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What is the nucleus responsible for?
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the passing on genetic traits between pores, chromatic, and ribosomes
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Chromosomes
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These are highly condensed, threadlike rods of DNA
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What does DNA stand for?
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deoxyribonucleic acid
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DNA
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genetic material that stores information about the plant or animal
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Chromatin
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This consists of the DNA and protein that make up chromosomes
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Nucleolus
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This structure contained within the nucleus consists of protein. Synthesizes and stores RNA (ribonucleic acid)
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Nuclear envelope
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Encloses the structures of the nucleus. Consists of inner and outer membranes made of lipids
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Nuclear pores
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involved in the exchange of material between the nucleus and the cytoplasm
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Nucleoplasm
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liquid within the nucleus, and is similar to cytoplasm
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What are the parts of the cell membranes? (8)
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• Glycoprotein • Glycolipid • Peripheral membrane protein • Phospholipid bilayer • Protein channel • Cholesterol • Filaments of cytoskeleton • Integral membrane protein
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Glycoprotein
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protein with carbohydrate attached
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Glycolipid
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lipid with carbohydrate attached
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What has selective permeability with regard to size, charge, and solubility?
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cell membrane or plasma membrane
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Selective permeability
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allows what goes in and outside of the cell
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Which two small molecules typically can pass through the cell membrane?
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oxygen and water
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Molecules that are soluble in phospholipids can usually?
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pass through the cell membrane
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Many molecules are not able to diffuse the cell membrane. How can they be moved?
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active transport and vesicle
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Ribosomes
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involved in synthesizing proteins from amino acids. They are numerous making up about one quarter of the cell.
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Golgi complex (Golgi apparatus)
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involved in synthesizing materials such as proteins that are transported out of the cell. Transportation of proteins.
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Vacuoles
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sacs used for storage, digestion, and waste removal.
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Vesicles
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vehicle that helps move materials within a cell.
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Cytoskeleton
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consists of microtubules that help shape and support the cell
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Microtubules
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part of the cytoskeleton and help support the cell. They're made of protein.
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Cytosol
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liquid material in the cell. Mostly water, but also contains floating molecules
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Cytoplasm
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refers to cytosol and the substructures (organelles) found within the plasma membrane, but not within the nucleus
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Cell Membrane (plasma membrane)
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defines the cell by acting as a barrier.
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Functions of cell membrane
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Helps keep cytoplasm in and substances located outside the cell out. Determines what is allowed to enter and exit.
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Endoplasmic reticulum
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tubular network that consists of the transport system of a cell
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What are the two types of endoplasmic reticulum and what is the difference between the two?
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rough and smooth. Rough ER has ribosomes and Smooth ER does not.
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Mitochondria
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performs various functions such as generating ATP (energy), and is involved in cell growth and death.
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The 4 functions of the Mitochondria are?
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1. Production of cell energy (ATP) 2. Cell signaling 3. Cellular differentiation 4. Cell cycle and growth regulation
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Aerobic respiration occurs in the?
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mitochondria
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The mitochondria consists of an inner and outer membrane• Between the inner and outer membranes are folds called?
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cristae
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Centrosome
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comprised of the pair of centrioles located at right angles to each other and surround by protein.
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The centrosome is involved in which cell divisions?
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mitosis and cell cycle
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Centriole
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cylinder shaped structures near the nucleus that are involved in cellular division.
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Lysosome
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Digests proteins, lipids, carbohydrates, and transports undigested substances to the cell membrane so they can be removed.
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Cilia
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appendages extending from the surface of the cell, which causes the cell to move. They can also result in fluid being moved by the cell
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Flagella
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These are tail-like structures that use whip-like movements to help the cell move.
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Cell cycle
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process by which a cell reproduces, which involves cell growth, duplication of genetic material, and cell division.
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What are the two ways that cells can reproduce?
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mitosis and meiosis
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Mitosis involves which kind of cells?
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body cells
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Meiosis involves which kind of cells?
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sex cells or gametes
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Cell differentiation
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process that helps to determine the cell type for each cell
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Process is controlled by the genes of each cell among a group of cells called a
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zygote
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Stages of mitosis
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1. Interphase 2. Prophase 3. Metaphase 4. Anaphase 5. Telophase 6. Cytokinesis
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Interphase
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cell prepares for division by replicating it genetic and cytoplasmic material.
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Interphase can be further divided into?
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G1, S, and G2
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Prophase
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Chromatic thickens into chromosomes and nuclear membrane begins to disintegrate.
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Prophase (Continued)
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• Pairs of centrioles move to opposite sides of the cell • Spindle fibers begin to form • Mitotic spindle, formed from cytoskeleton parts, moves chromosomes around within the cell
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Metaphase
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spindle moves to the center of the cell. Chromosome pairs align along the center of the spindle structure
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Anaphase
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pairs of chromosomes, called sisters, begin to pull apart, and may bend
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Anaphase (Continued)
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When separated, they're called daughter chromosomes. Grooves appear in the cell membrane
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Telophase
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Spindle disintegrates, the nuclear membrane reform, and the chromosomes revert to chromatin.
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Telophase (Animal cells)
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membrane is pinched
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Telophase (Plant cells)
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a new cell wall begins to form
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Cytokinesis
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physical splitting of the cell (including the cytoplasm) into two cells.
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What's the difference between Mitosis and Meiosis?
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The cells during Meiosis divide twice, and during the second division, interphase does not occur.
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In the second division of meiosis, the daughter cells are haploid. What does haploid mean?
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they contain half the genetic material of the parent cell
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What is the final result in meiosis? How many cells are there?
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4 daughter cells
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Meiosis encourages?
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genetic diversity
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From lowest to high, give the levels of organization.
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Chemical (molecular), cellular, tissue, organ, organ system, and organism
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What are the 4 broad (main) categories of tissues
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Epithelial tissue, muscular tissue, connective tissue, and nerve tissue
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What are the three muscle tissue?
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skeletal muscle, cardiac muscle, and smooth muscle
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Skeletal muscles include muscles commonly called
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biceps, triceps, hamstrings, and quadriceps.
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Cardiac muscle tissue is found only in the
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heart
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Smooth muscle tissue provides tension in the
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blood vessels, control pupil dilation, and aid in peristalsis.
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What are the 7 Categories of Tissues?
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Epithelial, muscle, connective, nervous, blood, bone, and cartilage
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Epithelial tissue
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Tissues in which cells are joined together tightly. Skin tissue is an example
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Muscle tissue
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helps support and move the body. The three types of muscle tissues are smooth, cardiac, and skeletal.
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Connective tissue
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may be dense, loose, or fatty. It protects and binds body parts
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Nervous tissue
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Cells called neurons form a network through the body that control responses to changes in the external and internal environment. Some send signals to muscles and glands to trigger responses
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Blood
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transports oxygen to cells and removes wastes. It also carries hormones and defends against disease
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Bone
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a hard tissue that supports and protects softer tissues and organs. Its marrow produces red blood cells.
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Cartilage
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cushions and provides structural support for body parts. It has a jelly-like base and if fibrous
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The 11 Major Organ Systems are?
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1. Integumentary system 2. Respiratory system 3. Cardiovascular system 4. Endocrine system 5. Skeletal system 6. Muscular system 7. Digestive system 8. Excretory system 9. Immune system 10. Nervous system 11. Reproductive system
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Name the Three Primary Body Planes
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transverse plane, sagittal plane, and coronal plane
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Transverse plane
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horizontal plane divides the patient's body into imaginary upper (superior) and lower (inferior or caudal) halves
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Sagittal plane
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divides the body, or any body part, vertically into right and left sections. The sagittal plane runs parallel to the midline of the body.
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Coronal plane
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frontal plane that divides the body, or any body structure, vertically into front and back (anterior and posterior) sections. Runs
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Proximal
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structures closer to the center of the body. The hip is proximal to the knee
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Distal
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refers to distance or structures further away from the center of the body. The knee is distal to the hip
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Anterior
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front
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Posterior
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back
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Medial
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nearer to the middle of the body. In anatomical position, the little finger is medial to the thumb
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Lateral
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to the side and is opposite of medial
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Cephalad or Cephalic
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meaning towards the head.
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Cranial
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meaning the skull
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Caudad
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towards the tail or posterior.
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Caudal
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hindquarters
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Superior
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above or closer to the head
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Inferior
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below or closer to the feet
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The upper respiratory system includes?
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• Nose • Nasal cavity • Mouth • Pharynx • Larynx
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The lower respiratory system includes?
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• Trachea • Lungs • Bronchial tree
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The categories of the respiratory system are?
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airway, lungs, and respiratory muscles
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The airway includes
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• Nose • Nasal cavity • Mouth • Pharynx (throat) • Larynx (voice box) • Trachea (windpipe) • Bronchi • Bronchial network
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The right lung has how many lobes?
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three lobes
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The left lung has?
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two lobes and leaving room for the heart on the left side of the body.
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The lungs are surround by a _____________, which reduces friction between surfaces when breathing
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pleural membrane
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The respiratory muscles include?
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diaphragm and intercostal muscles
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Diaphragm
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dome-shaped muscle that separates the thoracic and abdominal cavities.
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Intercostal muscles
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located between the ribs.
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The main function of the respiratory system is?
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To supply the body with oxygen and rid the body of carbon dioxide
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The respiratory system is responsible for?
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speech
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Functions of the respiratory system
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• Filters air • Vital in cough production • Functions in sense of smell • Chemoreceptors that is located in the nasal cavity respond to airborne chemicals. • The respiratory system also helps the body maintain acid-base homeostasis • Hyperventilation can increase blood pH during acidosis (low pH) • Slowing breathing during alkalosis (high pH) helps to lower blood pH
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The breathing process controlled by the?
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medulla oblongata
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The medulla oblongata monitors the?
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level of carbon dioxide in the blood and signals the breathing rate to increase when these levels are too high
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What is the circulatory system is responsible for?
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Internal transport for substances to and from the cells
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The three parts that the circulatory system consists of are?
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heart, blood, and blood vessels
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Heart
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muscular pump providing the pressure necessary to keep blood flowing
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Blood vessels
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tubules of different sizes that transport blood
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Blood can be defined as?
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composed of water, solutes, and other elements in a fluid connective tissue
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Name a supplementary system that cleans up excess fluids and proteins and returns them to the circulatory system
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Lymph vascular system
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How many quarts of blood do adult humans have?
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five quarts of blood
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What is blood composed of?
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red blood cells, white blood cells, platelets, and plasma
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______________ constitutes over half of the blood volume. It is mostly water and serves as a solvent.
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Plasma
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Plasma contains
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• Proteins • Ions • Glucose • Amino acids • Hormones • Dissolved gas
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What is the function of red blood cells?
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Transport oxygen to cells
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What is the function of white blood cells?
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Defend the body against infection and remove various waste
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Name the 5 types of white blood cells
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Lymphocytes, monocytes, neutrophils, eosinophils, and basophils
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The heart:
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• a muscular pump made of cardiac muscle tissue • It has four chambers; each half contains both an atrium and a ventricle • The halves are separated by a valve, known as AV valve and are located between the ventricle and the artery leading away from the heart. • Valves keep blood moving in a single direction and prevent any backwash into the chambers • The heart has its own circulatory system with its own coronary arteries • The heart functions by contracting and relaxing
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Which heart contraction fills the ventricles?
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Atrial contraction
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Which contraction empties the ventricles, forcing circulation?
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Ventricular contraction
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The sequence of contractions is called the
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cardiac cycle
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Name the 3 types of circulation
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• Coronary circulation • Pulmonary circulation • Systemic circulation
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Coronary circulation
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flow of blood to the heart tissue
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Pulmonary circulation
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flow of blood between the heart and lungs
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Systemic circulation
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flow of blood to the entire body. It also includes portal circulation and renal circulation
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Portal circulation
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flow of blood from digestive system to liver
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Renal circulation
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flow of blood between heart and kidneys
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Blood pressure
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the fluid pressure generated by the cardiac cycle
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Arterial blood pressure
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functions by transporting oxygen - poor blood into lungs and oxygen - rich blood to body tissues
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The main function of the lymphatic system is?
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Return excess tissue fluid to the blood stream
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The lymphatic system consists of?
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transport vessels and lymphoid organs
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The lymph vascular system consists of? (3)
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lymph capillaries, lymph vessels, and lymph ducts
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The major functions of the lymph vascular system are:
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• Return of excess fluid to the blood • Return of protein from the capillaries • Transport of fats from the digestive tract • Disposal of debris and cellular waste
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Lymphoid organs include:
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• Lymph nodes • Spleen • Appendix • Adenoids • Thymus • Tonsils • Small patches of tissue in the small intestine
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Each node contains?
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lymphocytes and plasma cells
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The spleen filters blood stores of?
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red blood cells and macrophages
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What secretes hormones and is the major site of lymphocyte production?
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The thymus
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Where is the spleen?
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• Behind the stomach and below the diaphragm • Upper left of the abdomen
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The spleen is made up of?
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lymphoid tissue
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Ligaments that support the spleen:
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• Gastrolienal ligament • Lienorenal ligament • Phrenicocolic ligament (middle secretion)
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Gastrolienal ligament
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connects stomach to spleen
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Lienorenal ligament
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connects kidney to the spleen
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Phrenicoclic ligament (middle secretion)
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connects left colic flexure to the thoracic diaphragm
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What is the major function of the spleen?
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Filter unwanted materials from the blood (including old red blood cells) and help fight infections
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How do digestive systems function?
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movement, secretion, digestion, and absorption
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Digestion begins with?
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the mouth - chewing and mixing nutrients with saliva
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What are the main functions of the stomach?
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• Mixing and storing food • Dissolving and degrading food via secretions • Controlling passage of food into the small intestine
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Protein digestion begins where?
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the stomach
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How does absorption begin?
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Smooth muscles contractions move nutrients into the small intestine
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What breaks down the food and make nutrients available for absorption
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stomach acidity
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What is the largest solid organ of the body and the largest gland?
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liver
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Name the 4 lobes of the liver
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right, left, quadrate, and caudate lobes
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Name the 5 ligaments the liver is secured by:
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• Falciform - forms a membrane-like barrier between the right and left lobes • Coronary • Right triangular • Left triangular • Round ligaments
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What are the 10 responsibilities of the liver?
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• Production of bile • Production of certain blood plasma proteins • Production of cholesterol • Storage of excess glucose in the form of glycogen (that can be converted back to glucose when needed) • Regulation of amino acids • Processing of hemoglobin (to store iron) • Conversion of ammonia • Purification of blood (clears out drugs and other toxins) • Regulation of blood clotting • Controlling infections by boosting immune factors and removing bacteria
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What is the main absorption organ of the digestive tract?
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small intestine
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Functions of the small intestine
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• Most nutrients are absorbed by the small intestine • Enzymes from pancreas, liver, and stomach help with digestion • Bile (stored in gallbladder) breaks down fats • Liming of small intestine covered with villi • Chime - semi-liquid mass of partially digested food
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What is another name for large intestine?
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colon
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Functions of the large intestine
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• Concentrates, mixes, and stores waste material • Attaches to rectum • Nervous system triggers muscles to poop • Speed for waste removal is influenced by volume of fiber and undigested material present
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Where is the pancreas located?
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behind the stomach
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What is the right side of the pancreas called?
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the head
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What is the left side of the pancreas called?
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the tail
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About the Pancreas:
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• Located behind stomach • Right side is called the head • Left side is called the tail • Head lies near duodenum (the first part of the small intestine) and the tail ends near the spleen • Made up of exocrine and endocrine tissues
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Exocrine
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secrete digestive enzymes through ducts
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Endocrine
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secrete hormones (ex: insulin) into blood stream
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Digestive Role of the Pancreas
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secretes enzymes to small intestine to help break down many foods, especially fats and proteins
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About the Nervous System:
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• Senses, interprets, and issues commands as a response to conditions in the body's environment • Process is possible by complex communication system organized as grid of neurons • Messages are sent across the plasma membrane of neurons through a process called action potential
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Name the 3 general functional types of Neurons
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sensory, motors, and interneurons
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Sensory
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transmit signals to central nervous system from sensory receptors associated with touch, pain, temperature, hearing, sight, smell, and taste.
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Motors
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signals from CNS to rest of body such as by signaling muscles or glands to respond
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Interneurons
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transmit signals between neurons. Ex: they receive transmitted signals between sensory and motor neurons
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Name the 3 basic parts that a neuron consists of:
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axon, dendrites, and cell body
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Axon
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transmits impulses away from the cell body.
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Dendrites
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receive impulses from sensory receptors or interneurons and transmit them toward the cell body
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Cell body
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(soma) contains the nucleus of the neuron
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Axon is insulated by ________________, and myelin sheath with gaps known as nodes of Ranvier.
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oligodendrocytes
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What terminates at the synapse?
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the axon
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What are the primary components of the Central Nervous System (CNS)?
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brain and spinal cord
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Spinal cord
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encased bony structure of vertebrae, which supports and protects it.
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Brain
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consists of hind brain, which includes the medulla oblongata, cerebellum, and pons (parts of brain stem)
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Functions of spinal cord
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• It's nervous tissue give limb movement and internal organ activity • Nerve tracts descend and ascend from spinal cord to brain
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Midbrain
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integrates sensory signals and orchestrates responses to these signals
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Forebrain
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includes cerebrum, thalamus, and hypothalamus
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Cerebral cortex
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thin layer of gray matter covering the cerebrum
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The four main lobes of the brain are
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frontal lobe, parietal lobe, temporal lobe, and occipital lobe
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Frontal lobe
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short term memory, planning, judgement
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Parietal lobe
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sensory input, spatial positioning
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Temporal lobe
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visual input, processing and output
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Occipital lobe
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auditory input, processing and output
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Cerebellum
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plays a role in processing and storing implicit memories
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Which part of the brain plays an important part of vision and hearing? It also lies above the pons and medulla oblongata.
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midbrain
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Medulla oblongata
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piece of the brain stem that connects the spinal cord to the brain. It also has an important role with the autonomous nervous system in the circulatory and respiratory system
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Which Nervous System consists of nerves and ganglia throughout the body and includes sympathetic nerves, which trigger "flight or fight" response, and the parasympathetic nerves which control basic body function?
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Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
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Autonomic Nervous System
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• Maintains homeostasis within body • Controls functions of internal organs, blood vessels, smooth muscle tissues, and glands
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What controls the Autonomic Nervous System through the brain stem?
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Hypothalamus
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What are the 2 divisions of the Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)?
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Sympathetic and Parasympathetic
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Sympathetic
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body's reaction to extreme, stressful, emergency situations
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Parasympathetic
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counteracts effects of sympathetic nervous system
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Somatic Nervous System
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• Controls 5 senses and voluntary movement of skeletal muscle • Efferent - motor reactions • Afferent - sensory (senses) Together afferent and efferent help operate sense and movement of skeletal muscle
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Efferent
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bring signals from CNS to sensory organs and muscles
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Afferent
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bring signals from sensory organs and muscles to the CNS
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What is a reflex?
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an automatic response without any conscious thought to stimulus via the reflex arc
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What is the simplest act of Nervous System?
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reflex
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What is the simplest nerve pathway?
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Reflex Arc. It passes by the brain and is controlled by the spinal cord.
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What is an example of a reflex arc?
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Patellar tendon reflex = knee jerk
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What are the 3 types of muscle tissue?
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skeletal, cardiac, and smooth
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What are the 3 common properties of muscles
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excitability, contraction, and elongate
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Excitability
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electric gradient which can reverse when stimulated
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Contraction
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shorten or contract
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Elongate
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to make longer or relax
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Which muscle tissues are involuntary?
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Cardiac and smooth muscle tissues
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Which muscle tissue is voluntary
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Skeletal tissue
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Skeletal tissue
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voluntary muscles that work in pairs to move various parts of the skeleton. Composed of muscle fibers
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Cardiac tissue
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involuntary and found in heart - striated
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Smooth tissue
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involuntary muscles found in walls of internal organs such as stomach and intestines
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Muscle fibers contain bundle of ____________?
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myofibrils
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Muscle fibers are composed of repeating contractible units called?
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sarcomeres
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Myofibrils
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contain 2 protein microfilaments that are thick and thin.
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Happens in thick microfilaments
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Protein myosin
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Happens in thin microfilaments
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Protein actin
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What forms when thin/thick microfilaments overlap?
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Dark bands (striations) forms
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What happens when a muscle contracts?
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Action Potential reaches muscle fiber, calcium ions are released, bind to myosin and actin.
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What provides energy necessary for the contraction?
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Adenosine triphosphate released from glucose
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Functions of Male Reproductive System
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• Produce • Maintain • Transfer sperm and semen into female reproductive tract and produce and secrete male hormones
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External structures of the Male Reproduction System
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penis, scrotum, and testes
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Internal structures of the Male Reproduction System
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epididymis, vans deferens, ejaculatory ducts, urethra, seminal vesicles, prostate gland, and bulbourethral glands.
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Penis
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contains urethra, can fill with blood and become erect, enabling the disposition of semen and sperm into the female reproduction during sexual intercourse
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Scrotum
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sac of skin and smooth muscle that houses the testes and keeps the testes at proper temperature for spermatogensis
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Testes (testicles)
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male gonads which produce sperm and testosterone
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What are the 2 male reproductive hormones?
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Follicle stimulating hormone and Luteinizing hormone
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Follicle stimulating hormone
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stimulates spermatogenesis
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Luteinizing hormone
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stimulates testosterone production
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Functions of the female reproductive system
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• Produce ova • Transfer ova to fallopian tubes for fertilization • Receive sperm • Provide protect and nourishing environment for developing embryo
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External structures of female reproductive system:
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Labia major, labia minor, bartholin's glands, and clitoris
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Labia major and labia minor
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enclose and protect vagina
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Bartholin's glands
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secrete a lubricating fluid
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Clitoris
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contain erectile tissue and nerve endings for sensual pleasure
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Internal structures of female reproductive system:
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Ovaries, fallopian tubes, uterus, and vagina
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Ovaries
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female gonads, produce ova and secrete estrogen and progesterone
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Fallopian tubes
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carry the mature egg toward the uterus. Fertilization typically occurs in these tubes
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Uterus
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egg is implanted in the uterine wall if fertilized
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Vagina
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muscular tube that extends from the cervix of the uterus to the outside of the body. Receives the semen and sperm during sexual intercourse and provides a birth canal when needed
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Integumentary System
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• Refers to skin • Includes sebaceous glands, sweat glands, hair, and nails
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Functions of Integumentary System
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• Protection - against bacteria, viruses, chemicals from entering the body • Secretion - sebum (oil) that waterproofs the skin and sweat for thermoregulation. Sweat glands also serve as excretory organs and help rid the body of metabolic wastes • Communication - sensory receptors inform brain regarding pain, touch, pressure, and temperature • Manufactures Vitamin D and absorbs certain chemicals and specific medications
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What are the 3 layers of the skin
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epidermis, dermis, and hypodermis
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What is the most superficial layer of skin?
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epidermis
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The deepest portion of the epidermis is the _____________,which is a single layer of cells that continually undergo division.
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stratum basale
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Most epidermal cells are ____________?
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keratinized
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Keratin
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waxy protein that helps to waterproof the skin
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The dermis consists of?
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connective tissue - blood vessels, sensory receptors, hair follicles, sebaceous glands, and sweat glands. Including collagen fibers and elastin
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Which layer of skin is actually NOT a layer of skin?
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hypodermis (subcutaneous layer)
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What does the hypodermis consists of?
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connective tissue, which binds the skin to the underlying muscles
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The temperature of the body is controlled by a
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negative feedback system
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A negative feedback system consists of what 3 components?
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receptor, control center, and effector
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Receptor
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sensory cells located in the dermis of the skin
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Control center
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the hypothalamus, which is located in the brain
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Effector
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sweat glands, blood vessels, and muscles (shivering)
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Sebaceous glands and sweat glands are what type of glands found in the skin?
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exocrine glands
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Exocrine glands
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secrete substances into ducts
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Sebaceous glands are ____________
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holocrine glands - which secrete sebum (oily lipids and proteins)
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Sweat glands are either _________ or ____________
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eccrine glands or apocrine glands
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Eccrine glands
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not connected to hair follicles. They're activated by elevated body temperature. They're also located throughout the body and can found on the forehead, neck, and back.
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Apocrine glands
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secrete and oily solution containing fatty acids, triglycerides, and proteins.
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Where are apocrine glands located?
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armpits, groin, palms, and soles of the feet
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What is the endocrine system responsible for?
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Secreting the hormones and other molecules that help regulate the entire body in both the short and long term
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The hypothalamus and pituitary gland coordinate to serve as a?
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neuroendocrine control center
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Which system has a close working relationship with the endocrine system?
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The nervous system
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The 8 Major Endocrine Glands + Functions:
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• Adrenal cortex • Adrenal medulla • Thyroid gland • Parathyroid • Pancreas islets • Thymus gland • Pineal gland • Pituitary gland
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Adrenal cortex
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monitor blood sugar level; helps in lipid and protein metabolism
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Adrenal medulla
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controls cardiac function; raises blood sugar and controls size of blood vessels
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Thyroid gland
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helps regulate metabolism and functions in growth and development
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Parathyroid
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regulates calcium levels in blood
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Pancreas islets
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raises and lowers blood sugar; active in carbohydrate metabolism
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Thymus gland
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plays role in immune responses
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Pineal gland
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has influence on daily biorhythms and sexual activity
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Pituitary gland
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plays important role in growth and development. Where FSH comes from
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Endocrine Functions of the Pancreas
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• Cells called islets or Langerhans made up of insulin- producing beta cells (50 to 80%) and glucagon - releasing alpha cells • Produces insulin and glucagon
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Insulin
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control carb metabolism by lowering glucose in blood • Affects fat metabolism and can change liver's ability to release stored fat
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Glucagon
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control carb metabolism and has opposite effect of insulin by increasing glucose levels (blood sugar levels)
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Parathyroid glands
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4 small glands embedded on the posterior (back) of thyroid
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Where are the thyroid and parathyroid glands located?
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Located in neck just below the larynx
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Functions of the Thyroid gland
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1. Regulate metabolism 2. Functions in growth and development 3. Secretes the hormones thyroxine, triiodothyronine, and calcitonin
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What does Calcitonin do?
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decreases blood calcium by storing calcium in bone tissue
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What does Thyroxine and Triiodothyronine do?
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increase metabolism
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The hypothalamus directs the pituitary gland to secrete __________, which stimulates the thyroid gland to release these hormones as needed via a negative-feedback mechanism
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thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)
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Parathyroid glands secrete ______________,which can increase blood calcium by moving calcium from the bone to the blood
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parathyroid hormone
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The renal/urinary system is capable of?
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eliminating excess substances while preserving the substances needed by the body to function
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The urinary system consists of?
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kidneys, urinary ducts, and bladder.
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The ___________ bean-shaped organ attached to the body near the peritoneum.
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mamalian kidney
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What is the function of the kidney?
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helps eliminate water and waste from the body
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Kidneys
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bean-shaped structures that are located at the back of the abdominal cavity just under the diaphragm
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Name the 3 layers of the kidneys
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• Renal cortex • Renal medulla • Renal pelvis
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Renal cortex
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outer layer of kidney that is composed of approximately one million nephrons (tiny, individual filters of kidneys)
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Renal medulla
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inner layer of kidney
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Renal pelvis
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innermost portion of kidney
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In general, what do the kidneys do? (other main functions)
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filter the blood, reabsorb needed materials, and secrete wastes and excess water in urine.
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The immune system protects the body against invading pathogens including:
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bacteria, viruses, fungi, and protists
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The immune system includes
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lymphatic systems - lymph, lymph capillaries, lymph vessel, and lymph nodes as well as the red bone marrow and numerous leukocytes, white blood cells.
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The body's general immune defenses include:
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• Skin • Ciliated Mucous Membranes • Glandular Secretions • Gastric Secretions • Normal Bacterial Populations
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Skin
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intact epidermis and dermis from a formidable barrier against bacteria
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Ciliated Mucous Membranes
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cilia sweep pathogens out of the respiratory tract
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Glandular Secretions
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from exocrine glands destroy bacteria
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Gastric Secretions
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gastric acid destroys pathogens
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Normal Bacterial Populations
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compete with pathogens in the gut and vagina
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What mobilizes white blood cells and chemical reactions to stop infection?
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Phagocytes and inflammation responses
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3 types of white blood cells form the foundation of the body's immune system are:
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macrophages, T cells, and B cells
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Macrophages
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phagocytes that alert T cells to the presence of foreign substances
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T cells
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these directly attack cells infected by viruses and bacteria
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B cells
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these cells target specific bacteria for destruction
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What other cells also contribute to the body's defense with macrophages, T cells, and B cells?
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Memory cells, suppressor T cells, and helper T cells
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Where are Leukocytes, or white blood cells, are produced?
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red bone marrow
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Leukocytes can be classified as
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• monocytes (macrophages and dendritic cells) • granulocytes (neutrophils, basophils, and eosinophils) • T lymphocytes • B-lymphocytes • natural killer cells
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Monocytes - macrophages and dendrite cells
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• Largest phagocytes = macrophages in lymphocyte tissue - which engulf and destroy pathogen • Dendritic cells present antigen to T cells
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Granulocytes
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• Neutrophils - short-lived phagocytes that respond quickly to invaders • Basophils - alert body of invasion • Eosinophils - large, non-living that defend against multicellular invaders
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Neutrophils
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short-lived phagocytes that respond quickly to invaders
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Basophils
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alert body of invasion
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Eosinophils
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large, non-living that defend against multicellular invaders
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T Lymphocytes
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T cells, helper T cells, killer T cells, suppressor T cells, and memory T cells
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Helper T cells
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help fight infection by producing antibodies and other chemicals
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Killer T cells
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destroy infected cells
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Suppressor T cells
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stop or "suppress" the other T cells when the battle is over
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Memory T cells
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remain in blood on alert incase the invader attacks again
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B Lymphocytes
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B cells - produce antibodies
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Natural Killer Cells
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a lymphocyte able to bind to certain tumor cells and virus-infected cells without the stimulation of antigens, and kill them by the insertion of granules containing perforin.
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Define an Antigen
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substances that stimulate immune system
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B cells differentiate into?
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plasma and memory cells
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Plasma cells produce?
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antibodies specific to that pathogen
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Antigens are typically?
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proteins on the surfaces of bacteria, viruses, and fungi. Drugs, toxins, and foreign particles can also be antigens
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Memory cells remain in blood stream to?
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protect against future infections from same pathogen
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The skeletal system is divided into 2 parts. What are they?
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Axial skeleton and appendicular skeleton
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Axial skeleton
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80 bones, including skull, sternum, ribs, vertebral column (spine) and hyoid bone
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Appendicular skeleton
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126 bones, bones of arms, feet, legs, hands, hips and shoulders
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Functions of the Skeletal System
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• Movement - action of skeletal muscles on bones moves the body • Mineral storage - bones serve as storage facilities for essential mineral ions • Support - bones act as a framework and support system for the organs • Protection - bones surround and protect key organs in the body • Blood cell protection - red blood cells are produced in the marrow of certain bones
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Bones are classified as
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long, short, flat, or irregular
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Red blood cells , an important site of red blood cell production ______________________
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fills the spongy tissue of many bones.
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Muscles and ligaments support the?
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flexible and curved backbone
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Joints are?
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areas of contact adjacent to bones
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Synovial joints
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the most common, and are freely movable. Found at the shoulders and knees
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Cartilaginous joints
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fill the spaces between some bones and restrict movement. Example - between vertebrae
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Fibrous joints
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have fibrous tissue connecting bones and no cavity is present
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Compact bone is also known as
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cortical bone
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Compact bone
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• Consists of tightly packed cells • Strong, dense, and rigid • Haversian canals runs vertically through compact bone. They're surrounded by lamellae (concentric circles on bone tissue) - the spaces between are called lacunae
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Spongy (Cancellous) Bone:
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• Consists of trabeculae • Lightweight and porous which helps reduce the bone's overall weight • Red blood marrow manufactures red and white blood cells • In long bones, the diaphysis consists of compact bone surrounding the marrow cavity and spongy bone containing red marrow in the epiphyses.
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Trabeculae
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network of girders with open spaces filled with red bone marrow.
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What is the longest phase of the cell cycle?
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interphase
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When does the nuclear division of somatic cells take place during cellular reproduction?
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mitosis
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The rate of a chemical reaction depends on all of the following except?
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amount of mass lost
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Which law says, "for a given mass and constant temperature, an inverse relationship exists between the volume and pressure of gas?"
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Boyle's Law. PV= c, where c = constant
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What is not a product or respiration?
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glucose
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Which blood vessel contains the LEAST-oxygenated blood?
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pulmonary artery
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Which layer of the heart contains striated muscle fibers for contraction of the heart?
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Myocardium
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How is meiosis similar to mitosis?
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Both occur in humans, animals, and plants
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What process should the DNA within a cell undergo before cell replication?
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DNA should replicate so that daughter cells have the same amount of DNA material after cell division
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Which characteristic is part of a person's genotype? Black hair that grows rapidly, being fast runner, CFTR genes that causes cystic fibrosis, or brown eyes that appear hazel in the sunlight?
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CFTR genes that causes cystic fibrosis
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Where is the interstitial fluid found?
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in tissues around the cells
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Which type of cell secretes antibodies?
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plasma cells
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Where does gas exchange occur in the human body?
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alveoli
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An atom has 5 protons, 5 neutrons, and 6 electrons. What is the electric charge of this atom?
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Negative. Because the atoms has MORE electrons than protons, the atom has a negative charge.
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Describe the vein, nerve, and artery found underneath the rib in DESCENDING order.
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Vein, Artery, Nerve
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Primary function of the spleen
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It filters microorganisms and other foreign substances from the blood
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Which of the following does not contain blood vessels: Hypodermis Hyperdermis Dermis Epidermis
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Epidermis - first layer of skin
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Which structure has the lowest blood pressure?
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Vein
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Which heart chamber is the most muscular?
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Left ventricle
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Which part of the brain interprets sensory information?
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Cerebrum
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The flow of blood in heart goes in what direction?
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right to left
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Where does bile come from?
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pituitary gland
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Macromolecules
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large and complex, play an important role in cell structure and function.
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Genome
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complete set of genes or DNA in an organism
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Gene
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a unit of heredity that is transferred from a parent to offspring and is held to determine some characteristic of the offspring
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Allele
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one of two or more alternative forms of a gene that arise by mutation and are found at the same place on a chromosome. Ex) determines hair color
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Flat bones
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• Thin, roughly parallel surfaces • Examples: cranial bones, sternum, ribs, scapulae • Protect underlying soft tissues • Provide surface area for skeletal muscle attachment
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Long bones
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• Relatively long and slender • Examples: various bones of the limbs • Femur (long bone of the thigh) is the largest and heaviest bone in the body
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Short bones
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• Small and boxy • Examples: bones of the wrist (carpals) and ankles (tarsals)
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Irregular bones
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• formed between cranial bones • Number, size, and shape vary
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Independent variable
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variable that is changed or controlled in a scientific experiment. Are also variables that the experimenter changes to test their dependent variable.
