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sociology

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the study of human society

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sociological imagination

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the ability to connect the most basic, intimate aspects of an individuals life to seeminly impersonal and remote historical forces

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social institution

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a complex group of inderdependent positions that perform a social role and reproduce themselves over time; also defined in a narrow sense as any institution in a society that works to shape behavior of the groups or people within it

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Verstehen

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german; understanding the concept of it forms the object of inquiry for interpretive sociology - to study how social actors understandd their actions and the social world through experience

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anomie

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a sense of aimlessness or despair that arises when we can no longer reasonably expect life to be predictable; too little social regulation; normlessness

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positive sociology

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a strain within sociology that belived the social world can be described and predicted by certain describable relationships

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double consciousness

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a concept concieved by W.E.B. DuBois to describe the two behavioral scripts, one for moving through the world and the other incorporating the external opinions of prejudiced onlookers, which are constantly maintained by African Americans

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functionalism

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the theory that various social institutions and processes in society exist to server some important (or necessary) function to keep society running

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conflict theory

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the idea that conflicts between competing interests is the basic, animating force of social change and society in general

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symbolic interactionism

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a micro-level thory in which shared meanings, orientations, and assumptions from the basic motivations behind peoples actions

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postmodernism

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a condition characterized by a questioning of the notion of progress and history, the replacement of narrative within pastiche, and multiple, perhaps even conflicting, identities resulting from disjointed affiliations

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social construction

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an entity that exists because people behave as if it exists and whose existence is perpetuated as people ad social institutions act in accordance with the widely agreed upon formal rules or informal norms of behavior associated with that entity

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midrange theory

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a theory that attempts to predict how certain social institutions tend to function

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microsociology

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seeks to understand local interactional contexts; its methods of choice are ethnographic, generally including particpant observation and in-depth interviews

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macrosociology

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generally concerned with social dynamics at a higher level of analysis - that is, across the breadth of a society

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research methods

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approaches that social scientists use for investigating the answeres to question

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quantitative methods

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methods that seek to obtain information about the social world that is already in or can be converted to numeric form

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qualitative methods

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methods that attempt to collect information about the social world that cannot be readily converted to numeric form

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deductive approach

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a research approach that starts with a theory, forms a hypothesis, makes empirical observations, and then analyzes the date to confirm, reject, or modify the original theory

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inductive approach

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a research approach that starts with empirical observations and then works to form a theory

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correlation/association

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simultaneous variation in two variables

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causality

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the notion that a change in one factor results in a corresponding change in another

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reverse causality

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a situation in which the researcher believes that A results in a change in B, but B, in fact, is causing A

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dependent variable

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the outcome that the researcher is trying to explain

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independent variable

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a measured factor that the researcher believes has a causal impact on the dependent variable

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hypothesis

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a proposed relationship between two variables

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operationalization

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the process of assigning a precise method for measuring a term being examined for use in a particular study

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reliability

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likelihood of obtaining consistent results using the same measure

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validity

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the extent to which an instrument measures what it is intended to measure

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generalizability

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the extent to which we can claim our findings inform us about a group larger than the one we studied

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reflecivity

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analyzing and critically considering our own role in, and effect on, our research

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population

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an entire group of individual persons, objects, or items from which samples may be drawn

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sample

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the subset of the population from whcih you are actually collecting data

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feminist methodology

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a set of systems or methods that treat womens experiences as legitimate empirical and theoretical resouces, that promote socal sciene for women (think public sociology, but for a specific half of the public), and that take into account that research as much s the overt subject matter

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participant observation

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a qualitative research method that seeks to observe social actions in practice

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survey

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an ordered series of questions intended to elicit information from respondents

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historical methods

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research that collects data from written reports, newpaper articles, journals, transcripts, tv programs, diaries, artwork, and other artifacts that date to a prior time period under study

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comparative research

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a methodology by which two or more entities, which are similar in many dimensions but differ on one in question, are compared to learn about the dimension that differs between them

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experimental methods

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methods that seek to alter the social landscape in a very specific way for a given sample of individuals and then track what results that change yields; often involve comparisons to a control group that did not experience such an intervention

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content analysis

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a systematic analysis of the content rather than the structure of a communicaiton, such as a written work, speech, or film

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public sociology

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the practice of sociological research, teaching, and service that seeks to engage a nonacademic audience for a normative, productive end

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culture

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a set of beliefs, traditions, and practices; the sum total of social categories and concepts we embrace in addition to beliefs, behaviors, and practices; that which is not the natural environment around us

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ethnocentrism

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the belief that one's own culture or group is superior to others and the tendency to view all other cultures from the perspective of one's own

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nonmaterial culture

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values, beliefs, behaviors, and social norms

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material culture

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everything that is a part of our constructed, physical envrionment, including technology

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ideology

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a system of concepts and relationships; an understanding of cause and effect

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cultural relativism

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taking into account the differences acorss cultures without passing judgment or assigning value

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cultural scripts

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modes of behavior and understanding that are not universal or natural

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subculture

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the distinct cultural values and behavioral patterns of a particular group in society; a group united by sets of concepts, values, symbols, and shared meaning specific to the members of that group and distinctive enough to distinguish it from others within the same culture or society

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values

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moral beliefs

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norms

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how values tell us to behave

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socialization

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the process by which individuals internalize values, beliefs, and norms of a given society and learn to function as members of that society

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reflection theory

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the idea that culture is a projection of social structures and relationships into the public sphere, a screen onto which the firm of the underlying reality or social structure of our society is projected

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media

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any formats or vehicles that carry, present, or communicate information

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hegemony

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a condition by which a dominant group used its power to elicit the voluntary "consent" of the masses

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consumerism

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the steady acquisition of material possessions, often with the belief that happiness and fulfillment can this be acieved

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culture jamming

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the act of turning media against themselves

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self

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the individual identity of a person as perceived by that same person

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I

answer

one's sens of agency, action, or power

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me

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the self as perceived as an object by the "I"; as the self as one imagines others percieve one

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other

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someone or something outside of oneself

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generalized other

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an internalized sense of the total expectations of others in a variety of settings - regardless of whether weve encountered those people or placed before

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resocialization

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the process by which ones sense of social values, beliefs, and norms are reengineered, often deliberately through an intense social process that may take place in a total insitution

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total institution

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an institution in which one is totally immerses and that controls all the basics of day to day lofe; no barriers exist between the usualy spheres of daily life, and all acitivity occurs in the same place and under the same single authority

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status

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a recognizable social position that an individual occupies

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role

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the duties and behaviors expected of someone who holds a particular status

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role strain

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the imcompatibility among roles corresponding to a single status

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role conflict

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the tension caused by competing demands between two or more roles pertaining to different statuses

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status set

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all the statuses one holds simultaneously

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ascribed status

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a status into which one is born; involuntary status

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achieved status

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a status into which one enters; voluntary status

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master status

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one status within a set that stands out or overrides all others

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gender roles

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sets of behavioral norms assumed to accompany one's status as male or female

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symbolic interactionism

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a micro-level theory in which shared meanings, orientations, and assumption form the basic motivations behind peoples actions

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dramaturgical theory

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the view (advanced by Erving Goffman) of social life as eddentially a theatrical performance, in which we are all actors on metaphorical stages, with roles, scripts, costumes, and sets

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face

answer

the esteem in which an individual is held by others

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ethnomethodology

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literally "the methods of the people", this approach to studying human interaction focuses on the ways in which we make sense of our world, convey this understanding to others, and produce a mutally shared social order

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dyad

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a group of two

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triad

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a group of three or more

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mediator

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member of a triad who attempts to resolve conflict between the two other actors in the group

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tertius gaudens

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the new third member of a traid who benefits from conflict between the other two members of the group

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divide et impera

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the role of a member of a triad who intentionally drives a wedge between the other two actors in the group

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small group

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a group characterized by face to face interaction, a unifocal perspective, lack of formal arrangements, and a certain level of equality

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party

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a group that is similar to a small group but multifocal

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large group

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a group characterized by the presence of a fromal structure that mediates interaciton and concequently status differentiation

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primary groups

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social groups, such as family or friends, composed of intimate face to face relationships that strongly influencce that attitudes and ideals of those involved

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secondary groups

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groups marked by impersonal, instrumental relationships (those existing as a means to an end)

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in-group

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another term for the powerful group, most often the majority

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out-group

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another term for the stigmatized or less powerful group, the minority

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reference group

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a group that helps us understand or make sense of our position in society relative to other groups

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social network

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a set of relations - essentially, a set of dyads - held together by ties between individuals

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tie

answer

a set of stories that explains our relationship to the other members of our network

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narrative

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the sum of stories contained in a set of ties

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embeddedness

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the degree to which ties are reinforced through indirct paths within a social network

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strength of weak ties

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the notion that often relatively weak ties turn out to be quite valuable because they yield new information

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structural hole

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a gap between network clusters, or even two individuals, if those individuals have complementary resources

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social capital

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the information, knowledge of people, and connections that help individuals enter, gain power in, or otherwise leverage social networks

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organization

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any social network that id defined by a common purpose and has a boundary between its membership and the rest of the social world

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organizational culture

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the shared beliefs and behaviors within a social group; often used interchangable with corporate culture

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isomophism

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a constraining process that forces one organiztion to resemble others that face the same set of environmental condition

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social deviance

answer

any transgression of socially established norms

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crime

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the violation of laws enacted by society

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social cohesion

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social bonds; how well people relate to each other and get along on a day to day basis

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mechanical solidarity

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social cohesion based on sameness

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organic solidarity

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social cohesion based on differnce and interdepenence of the parts

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social control

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those mechanisms that create normative compliance in dividuals

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formal social sanctions

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mechanisms of social control by which rules or laws prohibit deviant criminal behavior

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informal social sanctions

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the usually unexpressed but widely known rules of group membership; the unspoken rules of social life

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social integration

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how well you are integrated into your social group or community

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social regulation

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the number of rules guiding your daily life and, more specifically, what you can reasonable expect from the world on a day to day basis

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egoistic suicide

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suicide that occurs when one is not well intergrated into a social group

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altruistic suicide

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suicide that occurs when one experienes too much social integration

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anomic suicide

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suicide that occurs as a result of too little social regulation

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fatalistic suicide

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suicide that occurs as a result of too much social regulation

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strain theory

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merton's theory that deviance occurs when a society does not give all its members equal ability to achieve socially acceptable goals

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conformist

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individual who accepts both the goals and strategies to achieve them that are considered socially acceptable

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ritualist

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individual who rejects socially defined goals in order to live within his or her own means

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innovator

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social deviant who accepts socially acceptable goals but rejects socially acceptable means to achieve them

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retreatist

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one who rejects both socially acceotablt means and goals by completely retreating from, or not participating in, society

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rebel

answer

individual who rejects socially acceptable goals and means by wants to alter or destroy the social institutions from which he or she is alienated

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labeling theory

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the belief that individuals subconsciously notice how others see or label them and their reactions to those labels, over time, form the basis of their self-identity

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primary deviance

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the first act of rule-breaking that may incur a label of deviant and thus influence how peeople think about and act toward you

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secondary deviance

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subsequent acts of rule-breaking that occur after primary deviance and as a result of your new deviant label and peoples expectations of you

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stigma

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a negative social label that not only changes your behavior toward a person but also alters that person's own self-concept and social identity

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broken windows theory of deviance

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theory explaining how social context and social cues impact whether individuals act deviantly; specifically, whether social, informal social norms allow deviant acts

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street crime

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crime committed in public and often assocaited with violence, gangs, and poverty

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white-collar crime

answer

offense commited by a professional against a corporation, agency, ot other insitution

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corporate crime

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a particular type of white-collar crime committed by the officers of a corporation

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deterrence theory

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philosphy of criminal justice arising from the notion that crime results from a rational calculation of its costs nd benefits

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recidivism

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when an individul who has been involved with the criminal justice system reverts back to criminal behavior

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panopticon

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a circular building composed of an inner ring and an outer ring designed to serve as a prision in which the detainees can always be seen and the observer, housed in the inner ring, is hidden from thos being observed

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stratification

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structured social inequality or, more specifically, systematic inequalities between groups of people that arise as intended or unintended consequences of social processes and relationships

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social equality

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a condition whereby no differnces in wealth, power, prestige, or status based on nonnatural conventions exist

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dialectic

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a two-directional relationship, one that goes both ways

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ontological equality

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the notion that everyone is created equallly in the eyes of God

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equality of opportunity

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the idea that inequality of condition is acceptable so long as the rules of the game, so to speak, remain fair

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bourgeois society

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a society of commerce in which the maximization of profit is the primary buiness incentive

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equality of condition

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the idea that everyone should have an equal starting point

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equality of outcome

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a position that argues each player must end up with the same amount regardless of the fairness of the game

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free rider problem

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the notion that when more than one person is repsonsible for getting something done, the incetive is for each individual to shrink responsibility and hope others will pull the extra weight

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estate system

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politically based system of stratification characterized by limited social mobility

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caste system

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religion-based system of stratification characterized by no social mobility

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class system

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economically based system of stratification characertized by relative categorization and somewhat loose social mobility

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proletariat

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the working class

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bourgeoisie

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the capitalist class

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contradictory class locations

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the idea that people can occupy locations in the class structure which fall between the two pure classes

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status hierarchy system

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a system of stratification based on social prestige

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elite-mass dichotomy system

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system of stratification that has a governing elite, a few leaders who broadly hold the power of society

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meritocracy

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a society where status and mobility are based on individual attributes, ability, and achievement

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socioeconomic stauts (SES)

answer

an individuals position in a stratified social order

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income

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money receieved by a person for work or from returns on investments

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wealth

answer

a familys or individuals net worth

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upper class

answer

a term for the economic elite

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middle class

answer

a term commonly used to describe those individuals with nonmanual jobs that pay significantly more than the poverty line - though this is a highly debated and expansive category, particularly in the U.S., where broad swathes of the population consider themselves this

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social mobility

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the movement between different positions within a system of social stratification in any given society

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structural mobility

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mobility that is inevitable from changes in the economy

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status-attainment model

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approach that ranks individuals by SES, including income and educational attainment, and seeks to specify the attributes characteristic of people who end up in more desirable occupations

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female circumcision

answer

the removal of a woman's sexually sensitive clitoris

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feminism

answer

an intellectual, consciousness raising movement to get people to understand that gender is an organizing principle of life. the underlying belief is that women and men should be accorded equal opportunities and respect

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sex

answer

the biological differences that distinguish male from female

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sexuality

answer

refers to desire, sexual preference, sexual identity, and behavior

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gender

answer

denotes a social position, the set of social arrangements, that are built around sex categories

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essentialism

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line of thought that explains social phenomna in terms of natural ones

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biological determinism

answer

line of thought that explains social behavior in terms of biological givens

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hegemonic masculinity

answer

dominant and privledged, if invisible, cateogory of men

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gender roles

answer

sets of behavioral norms assumed to accompany ones status as a male or female

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patiarchy

answer

a nearly universal system involving the subordination of femininity to masculinity

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structural functionalism

answer

theoretical tradition claiming that every society has certain structures that exist in order to fulfill some set of functions

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sex role throy

answer

talcott parson's theory that men and women perform their sex roles as breadwinners and wives and mothers, respectively, because the nuclear family is the ideal arrangement in modern societies, fulfilling the functon of reproducing workers

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homosexual

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the social identity of a person who has sexual attraction to and or relations with other persons of the same sex

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sexism

answer

occurs when a perons sex or gender is the basis for judgement, discrimination, and hatred against him or her

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sexual harassment

answer

an illegal form of discrimination, involving everything from inappropraite jokes on the job to outright sexual assualt to sexual barter - all intended to make women fell unconformable and unwelcome, particularly on the job

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glass ceiling

answer

an invisiable limit on womens climb up the occupational ladder

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glass escalator

answer

the promotional ride men take to the top of a wok organization, especially in feminized jobs

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race

answer

a group of people who share a set of charcteristics - typically, but not alwaays, physical ones - and aare said to share a common bloodline

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racism

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the belief that members of separate races possess different and unequal traits

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scientific racism

answer

19th century theories of race that characterize a period of feverish invesitgation into the originsm explanations, and classifications of race

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ethnocentrism

answer

the belief that ones own culture or group is superior to others and the tendency to view all other cultures from the perspective of ones own

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social darwinism

answer

the application of darwinian ideas to society, namely, the evolutionary survival of the fittest

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eugenics

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literally meaning "well born", the theory of controlling the fertility of populations to influence inheritable traits passed on from generation to generation

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nativism

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movement to protect and preserve indigenous land or culture from the so called dangerous and polluting effects of new immigrants

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ibe-drop rule

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the belief that one drop of black blood makes a person black

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miscegenation

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the technical term for multiracial marriage; literally meaning "a mixture of kinds", it is politically and historically charged - sociologists generally prefer exogamy or outmarriage

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racialization

answer

the formation of a new racial identity, in which new ideological boundaries of difference are drawn around a formerly unnoticed group of people

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ethnicity

answer

ones ethnic quality or affiliation - it is voluntary, self defined, nonhierarchal, fluid, and multiple, and is based on cultural differences, not physical ones per se

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symbolic ethnicity

answer

a nationality, not in the sense of carrying the rights and duties of citizenships but identifying with a past or future nationality - for later generations of white ethnics, something not constrining but easily expressed, with no risks of stigma and all the pleasures of feeling and like an individual

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stright-line assimilation

answer

robert park's 1920 universal and linear model for how immigrants assimilate; first they arrive, then they settle in, and finally they achieve full assimilation in a newly homogenous country

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primordialism

answer

clifford geertz's term to explain the persistence of ethnic ties because they are fixed in deeply felt or primordial ties to one's homeland culture

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pluralism

answer

the presence and engaged coexistence of numerous distinct groups in one society

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segregation

answer

the legal or social practice of separatin people on the basis of their race or ethnicity

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genocide

answer

the mass killing of a group of people

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subaltern

answer

describes a subordinate, oppressed group of people

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collective resistance

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an organized effort to change a power hierarchy on the part of a less-powerful group in a society

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prejudice

answer

thoughts and feelings about an ethnic or racial group

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discrimination

answer

harmful or negative acts (not mere thoughts) against peeople deemed inferior on the basis of their racial category without regard to their individual merit

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culture of poverty

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the argument that poor people adopt certain practices that differ from those of middle-calss, "mainstream" society in order to adapt and survive in difficult economic circumstances

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underclass

answer

the notion, building on the culture of poverty argument, that the poor not only are different from mainstream society in their inability to take advantage of what mainstream society has to offer but also are increasingly deviant and even dangerous to the rest of us

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perverse incentives

answer

reward structures that lead to suboptimal outcomes by stimulating counterproductive behavior; for example, welfare - to the exxtent that is discourages work efforts - is argued to have this

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absolute poverty

answer

the point at which a household's income falls below the necessary level to purchase food to physically sustain its members

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relative poverty

answer

a measurement of poverty based on a percetnage of the median income in a given location

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parenting stress hypothesis

answer

a paradigm in which the psychological aspects of poverty exacerbate household stress levels; this stress, in turn, leads to detrimental parenting practices such as yellng, shouting, and hitting, which are not conductive to health child edvelopement

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medicalization

answer

the process by which problems or issues not traditionally seen as medical come to be framed as such

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sick role

answer

concept decribing the social rights and obligations of a sick individual

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morbidity

answer

illness in a general sense

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mortality

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death

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endogamy

answer

marriage to someone within ones social group

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exogamy

answer

marriage to someone outside ones social group

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monogamy

answer

the practice of having only one sexual partner

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polygamy

answer

the practice of having more than one sexual partner or spouse at a time

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polyandry

answer

the practice of having multiple husbands simultaneously

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polygyny

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the practice of having mutliple wives at the same time

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nuclear family

answer

familial form consisting of a father, mother, and their children

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extended famili

answer

kin networks that extend outside or beyond the nucelar family

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cohabitation

answer

living together in an intimate relationship without formal legal or religious sanctioning

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kinship networks

answer

stings of relstionships between people related by blood and co-residence (marriage)

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cult of domesticity

answer

the notion the true womanhood centers on domestic responsiblity and child bearing

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second shift

answer

women's responsibility for housework and child care

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civil unions

answer

legally recognized unions explicitly intended to offer similar state-provided legal rights and benefits as marriage

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domestiv partnerships

answer

legally recognized unions that guarantee only select rights to same-sex couples

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education

answer

the process through which academic, social, and cultural ideas and tools, both general and specific, are developed

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hidden curriculum

answer

the nonacademic socialization and training that take place in the schooling system

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social capital

answer

any relationship between people that can facilitate the actions of others

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tracking

answer

a way of dividing students into different classes by ability or future plans

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credentialism

answer

an overemphasis on credential for signaling social status or qualifications for a job

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affirmative action

answer

a set of policies that grant preferental treatment to a number of particular subgroups within the population - typically women and historically disadvantaged racial minorities

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social class

answer

an individuals position in a stratified social order

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cultural capital

answer

symbolic and interactional resources that people use to their advantage in various situations

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stereotype threat

answer

when members of a negatively stereotypes group are placed in a situation where they fear they may confirm those stereotypes

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resource dilution model

answer

hypothesis stating that parental resources are finite and that each additional child dilutes them

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captialism

answer

economic system in which property and good are primarily owned privately; investments are determined by private decision; and prices, production, and the distribution of goods are determined primarily by compeition in a free market

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feudalism

answer

economic syustem characterized by the presense of lords, vassals, serf, and fiefs

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argricultual revolution

answer

the introduction of new farming technologies that increased food output in farm production

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corporation

answer

a legal entity unto itself that has a legal personhood dinstinct from that of its members - namely, its owners and shareholders

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alientation

answer

a condition in which people are dominated by forced of their own creation that then confront them as alient powers; accoridng to marx, the basic state of being in a capitalist society

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socialism

answer

an economic system in which most or all the needs of the population are met through nonmarket methods of distribution

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communism

answer

a politcal ideology of a classless society in which the means or production are shared thrrough state ownership and in which rewards are not tied to productivity but need

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family wage

answer

a wage paid to male workers sufficient to support a dependent wife and children

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service sector

answer

the ecnomic activity that involves providing intangible services

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champange-glass distribution

answer

the unequal, global distribution of income, so named for its shape

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monopoly

answer

the form of business that occurs when theres only one seller of a good or service in the market, leading to zero competition

question

oligopoly

answer

the condition when only a handful of firms exist in a particular market

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offshoring

answer

a business deicion to move all or part of a companys operations overseas to minimize costs

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union

answer

the organization that forms when workers formally unite with the common aim of collective bargaining

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union busting

answer

a companys assult on its workers union with the hope of dissolving it

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politics

answer

power relations among people or other social actors

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authority

answer

the justifiable right to exercise power

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charasmatic authority

answer

authorirty that rests in the superhuman appeal of an individual leader

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traditional authority

answer

authority based on appeals to past tradition

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legal-rational authority

answer

a system of authority based on legal, impersonl rules; the rules rule

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routinization

answer

the clear, rule-governed procedures used repeatedly for decision making

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rationalization

answer

an ever-expanding process of ordering or organzing

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bureaucracy

answer

a legal-rational organization or mode of administation that governs with reference to rules and roles and which emphasize meritocracy

question

specialization

answer

the process of making work consist of specific, delimited tasks

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taylorism

answer

the methods of labor management introduced by frederick taylor to streamline the processes of mass production in which each worker repeatedly performs one specific task

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power

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the ability to carry out ones own will despite resistance

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domination

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the probability that a command with specific content will be obeyed by a given group of people

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state

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as defined by weber, "a human community that successfully claims the monopoly of the legitmate use of physical force within a given territory"

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coercion

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the use of force to get others to do what you want

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paradox of authority

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although the states authority derives from the implicit threat of physical force, resorting to ceorcion strips the state of all legitmate authority

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internal state system

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a system in which each state is recognized as territorially sovereign by fellow states

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welfare state

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a system in which the state is responsiblw for the well-being of its citizens

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citizenship rights

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the righs guaranteed to each law-abiding citizen in a nation-state

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civil rights

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the rights gyaranteeing a citizens personal freedom from interference, including freedom of speech and the right to travel freely

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political rights

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the right guaranteeing a citizens ability to participate in politics, including the right to vote and the right to hold an elected office

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social rights

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the rights guaranteeing a citizens protection by the state

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soft power

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power attained through the use of cultural attractiveness rather than the threat of coercive action

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democracy

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a system of government wherin power theoretically lies with the people; citizens are allowed to vote in lections, speak freely, and participate as legal equals in social life

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game theory

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the study of strategic decisions under condititons of uncertainty and interdepence

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collective action problem

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the difficulty in organizing large groups beacuse of the tendecy of some individuals to freeload or slack off

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political party

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an organization that seeks to gain power in a government, generally by backing candidates for office who suscribe to the organizations political ideas

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interest grup

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an organization that seeks to gain power in government and influence policy wihtout direct election or appointment to office

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political participation

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activity that has the intent or effect of influencing goverment action

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civil religion

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a set of sacred beliefs so commonly accepted by most people that i becomes part of the national cultures

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religion

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a system of beliefs and practices around sacred things; a set of shared stories that guide belief and action

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sacred

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holy things means for special use and kept separate from the profane; the sacred realm is unknowable and mystical, so it inspires us with feelings of awe and wonder

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profane

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the things of mundane, everyday life

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theism

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the worship of a god or gods, as in christianity, islam, and hinduism

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ethicalism

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the adherence to certain principles to lead a moral life, as in buddhiism

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animism

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the belief that spirits roam the natural world, as in totemism

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denominations

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big groups of congregations that share the same faith and are governed under one administrative unbrella

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secularism

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a general movemenet away from religiosity and spiritual belief toward a rational, scientific orientation, a trend adopted by industrialized nations in the form of separations of church and state

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pluralism

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the presence and engaged coexistence of numerous distinct groops in once society

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sacred canopy

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peter berger's term to desceib the entire set of religious norms, symbols, and beliefs that express the most important thing in life - namely, the feeling that life is worth living and that reality is meaningful and ordered, not the random chaos of the stars

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evangelicals

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members of any protestant denomination distinguished by four main beliefs: 1. the Bible is without error 2. salvation comes only through belief in Jesus Christ 3. personal conversaion is the only path to salvation 4. others must also be converted - they proselytize by engaging with wider society

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fundamenalists

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religious adherents who follow a scripture using a lliteral interpretation of its meaning

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religious experience

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an individuals experience of spiritual feelings and aacts

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reflective spirituality

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a contemporary religious movement that encourages followers to look to religion for meaning, wisdom, and profound thought and feeling rather than for absolute truths on how the world works

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megachurch

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typically, a conservative protestant church that attracts at least 2,000 worshippers per week

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supernatural compensators

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promises of future rewards, such as salvation or eternity in heaven

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churches

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religious bodies that coexist in a relatively low state of tension with their social surroundings. they have mainstream or safe beliefs and practices relative to those of the general population

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sects

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high-tension organizations that dont fit in so well within the existing social environmenmt. they are usually most attractive to societys least privledged - outcasts, minorities, or the poor - because they renounce wordly pleasuer by stressing otherworldly promises

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cult

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religious movements that makes some new claim about the supernatural and therefore does not as easily fit within the sect-church cycle

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paradigm

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the framework within with scientists operate

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normal science

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science conducted within an existing paradigm, as defined by thomas kuhn

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paradigm shift

answer

when enough anomalies accure to challenge the existing paradigm, showing that it is incomplete or inadequate to explain all observed phenomena

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normative view of science

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the notion that science is unaffected by the personal beliefs or values of scienetists but rather follows objective rules of evidence

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boundary work

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work done to maintain the border between legitimate and nonlegitimate science within a specific scientific discipline or between ligitimate disciplines

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matthew effect

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a term used by sociologists to decribe the notion the certain scienfitic results get more notoriety and influence based on the exisint prestige of the researchers involved

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global warming

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rising atmospheic concentrations of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases as well as higher global average temperatures

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risk society

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a society that bother produced and is concerned with mitigating risks, espeically manufactured risks (ones that result from human activity)

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digital divide

answer

differeential access to telecommunications and information technologies based on SES

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collectice action

answer

action that takes place in groups and diverges from the social norms of the sitution

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convergence theory

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theory of collective action stating that collectice action happens when people with similar ideas and tendencies gather in the same place

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contagion theory

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theory of collectice action claiming that collection action arises because of peoples tendency to conform to the behavior of others with whom they are in close contact

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emergent norm theory

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theory of collective action emphasizing the influence of keynoters in promoting particular norms

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social movement

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collective behavior that is purposeful, organized, and institutionalized but not ritualized

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alternative social movements

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social movements that seek the most limited societal change and often target a narrow groups of people

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redemptive social movements

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social movements that target specific groups but advocate for more radical social change

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reformative social movements

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social movements that advocate for limited social change across an entire society

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revolutionary social movements

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social movements that advocate the radical reorganization of society

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classical model

answer

model of social movements based on a concept of structural weakness in society that results in the psychological disruption of individuals

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resource-mobilization theory

answer

model of social movements that emphasizes political context and goals but also states that social movements are unlikely to emerge without the necessary resouces

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political process model

answer

model of social movements that focuses on the structure of political opportunities. when these are favorable to a particular challenger, the chances are better for the success of a social movement led by this challenger

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emergence

answer

the first stage of a social movement, occuring when the social problem being addressed is first identified

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coalescence

answer

the second stage of a social movement, in which resources are mobilized (thaat is, concete action is taken) around the problems outlined in the first stage

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routinization

answer

the final stage of a social movement, in which it is institutionalized and a formal structure develops to promote the cause

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social movement organization (SMO)

answer

a group developed to recruit new members and coordinate participation in a particular social movement; SMOs also often raise money, clarify goals, and structure participation in the movement

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grassroots organization

answer

a type of social movement organization that relies on high levels of community based participation to promote social change. it lacks a hierarchical structure and works through existing political structures

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premodernity

answer

social relations characterized by concentric circles of social affilication, a low degree of division of labor, relatively undeveloped technology, and traditional social norms

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modernity

answer

social relationa characterized by rationality, bureaucratization, and objectivity - as well as individuality created by nonconcentric, but overlappying, group affliation

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postmodernity

answer

social relations characterized by a questoiing of the notion of progress and history, the replacement of narrative with pastiche, and multiple, perhaps even conflicting, identities resulting from disjointed affiliations

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