Sociology of Aging – Flashcards
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Gerontology
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scientific study of the biological, psychological, and social aspect of aging coined in 1904 by immunologist Elie Metchnikoff
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Social Gerontology
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the sub field of gerontology, focus on social aspects of aging, such as family relationships, health, & retirement
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Successful Aging
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prevents disease, disability reduction, attain peak physical & psychological functioning, being active in rewarding activities, turn negative to positive, involves the individual and society
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Conceptual Issues in Research on Aging
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Defining Old Age: Chronological Age, Social Roles, Functional Age, and Subjective Age
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Cohorts and Generations
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*aggregate of individuals who experience same event within the same time interval *used in most studies *sometimes used interchangeably, studies of family processes
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Index of While-Being (IWOP)
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developed by Stanford Center on Longevity & Population Reference Bureau. *measures well-being of older populations across 4 domains: material( basic needs), physical( ability to perform basic living skills), social engagement ( involvement w/ family, peers, community), emotional well-being ( men tell & psychological)
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current research on IWOP
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*Denmark, Netherlands, Switzerland and the US: highest levels of well-being for 65+ * well-being varies substantially across population groups in each country but relative standing of each country is similar across age groups
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Working Longer
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* time in labor force increasing due to recent economic and policy changes 1999:12% of labor force was 55+ 2009:19%, 2019:25% follows 40 years of decline: 1950 &1993 fell from 43% to 29% creating social class of healthy, active, and financially comfortable retirees
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poverty among the aged
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agent blacks is Over 3 times as high as whites poverty among 65+ varies by race and ethnicity: 7% whites, 23% blacks, 17% Hispanics, 14% Asians women= higher poverty rate than men in every racial and ethnic group
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Elderly Support Ratio
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concern regarding whether workforce will be large enough to support social security *Elderly Support Ratio= the # of working age adults 18-64 for every person 65+ * 1900:14 working adults for every 65+ *1960: drop to 6, today~ 5& expected to decline to under 3 by 2050 * almost 1/3 of US counties already has an elderly support ratio of 3 or less
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Agism
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ageism: a systematic stereotyping of & discrimination against people because they are old. 2 distinct concepts: stereotypes and age discrimination
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Geriatrics
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*geriatrics associate with medicine, nursing, dentistry, etc. *Involves prevention/management of diseases of old age
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Social Gerontology
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Social science discipline concerned with: 1. nonphysical side of aging/ impact of social& sociocultural conditions on process of aging and 2. social consequences of the processes
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Aging
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aging is not a single universal process. number of indicators used to define what is meant by aging. at least 6 basic indicators of aging: chronological, biological, psychological, sociological/ social roles, functional, subjective or self-definition
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Chronological Indicator
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Chronological age =?, passage of time since years of birth * only partially reflects biological, psychological and sociological processes. related terms= life span& life expectancy
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life span
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maximum length of life potentially attainable. defined as the longest # years any member of a species has ben known to live
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life expectancy
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*avg # of years lived by any group of individuals born in the same period. *avg. # of yrs people in given population can expect to live. **Mean age of Death
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Biological indicator
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person's position relative to probable lifespan. involves physical changes that cause an organism to deteriorate. measured by determining the functional capacities of a person's organ system
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Psychological Indicator
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reflects a person's adaptability or flexibility. involves a sensory& perceptual process changes-memory, learning, intelligence, adaptive capacity, personality, motorists, etc.
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Social Indicator
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reflects the roles one plays throughout life& the current roles/ role expectations. Involves relationship with family, friends, work, organizations, etc. Involves social and context& how it determines the meaning of aging for individuals
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Functional Indicator
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based on how people like and what they can do-function. 3 common ways of determining: 1. Inability to perform major roles of adulthood 1. Physical changes reducing abilities such as stiffness of joints, reduce aerobic capacity 3. appearance: gray hair, wrinkles
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3 categories of functional aging
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1. Well elders 2. somewhat impaired elders 3. frail elders
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Subjective Indicator
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subject of aging reflects one's definition of self as it pertains to being old
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4 basic contexts/ dimensions for understanding aging
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1. Social context: chronological, social, subjective indicator 2. Physiological context: biological & functional indicator 3. Psychological context: psychological 4. Societal context
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Life Course Framework
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approach to study of aging that emphasizes the interaction of historical events, individual decisions and opportunities and the effect of early life experiences in determining later life outcomes. Countertransitions: produced by others role changes. Trajectory: a series of transitions
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New Ageism
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tendency to patronize elderly. agism is transmitted in a variety of ways: family, workplace, between groups of friends, and media
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Stereotyping
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*composite of ideas and beliefs attributed to people as a group or social category. *negative stereotyping: is age discrimination. *most commonly found in the workplace
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Careers in Social Gerontology
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programs focus towards elderly: Medicare, Social Security, Medicaid, older American act, congregate meals, legal assistant, transportation services
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issues in research on the life course
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Age effect- change that occurs from advancing age Period effect- impact of historical event on entire society Cohort effect- social change that occurs as one cohort replaces another
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cross sectional research
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cross-sectional study would ask the same information of people in several age groups
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longitudinal research
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follow the same group of people over time. prominent example: longitudinal study of generations by social gerontologist Vern Bengston
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identifying life course events
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*Age norms: timing refers to idea that there are appropriate ages for making various life course transitions *Bernice Neugarten study in 60s concluded life course regulated by age norms, informal rules specifying age-appropriate roles and behavior
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inequality over the life course
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* traditional gender role: women tend to be caretakers, affects social and economic status * racial: irregular work history and lower paying jobs these often lower social security payments. should decline among elderly in future if cohort differences in employment opportunities are realized
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3 ways the State( government) can effect a person's life course
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1. Regulations/ laws 2. Social programs 3. Services provided to people of a given age * put limitations on what we can do and when. * the State has the greatest impact on a person's adolescence and old-age
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Baby Boomers
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born between 1946 and 1964
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Echo Boomers
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born between 1977 and 1994
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source of population data
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demographic analysis based on census count. the bureau of the census is the central clearinghouse for all national population data in the US. every 10 years. info includes births, deaths, country of origin, health, living arrangements and income
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Sex Ratio
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sex ratio:# of males to every 100 females; declines progressively over the life course from small excess of young boys to a massive deficit of men in extreme old age
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population aging
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of populations age structure can change through 3 fundamental graphic processes: 1. Fertility rates 2. Mortality rates and 3. Migration
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Dependency Ratio
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another way to measure population aging. *Elderly Dependency Ratio: # of persons 65+ per 100 working age persons * Child Dependency Ratio: # of persons under 18 relative to those of working age * Total Dependency Ratio: combined ratio of children and older people to workers
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migration
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most immigrants are relatively young. 75% of all Hispanics who arrived from 1970- 1980 under 35. 8% of total growth of elderly in US from 1992-2000 due to international migration.
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Life Expectancy
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between 1900- 1996, life expectancy increased nearly 30 years from 47.3 to 76.1
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Education
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* 1980; 43% of those over 65 had only in 8th grade education or less. by 1991 only 26.5% * benefits of good education associated w/ increased employment opportunity, higher lifetime income, better health * Education is one of the best predictors of a range of social conditions, including income and health.
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Geographic Mobility in elders
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**3-stage life course pattern: 1. Move occurs among young retirees seeking comfortable lifestyle 2. Occurs 20 or more years later when older people develop chronic disabilities, serious illness, become widowed 3. finally, physical incapacity may force 3rd move to a nursing home or assisted living
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Veneration in Non-Western cultures
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Veneration: borrowed from non-western traditional cultures where elderly are looked upon with great respect and knowledge
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Decline of Veneration of Aged 1770-1860
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social position greatly declined, no longer revered. clothing style changed from flattering the aged to making them look younger. calling aged useless, growth of retirement increased, more aged lived in poverty, which only made negative stereotypes true
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From Veneration to Degradation in Post-Civil War Period 1860-1920
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*after the Civil War, elders seen as ugly and disease ridden * scientific advancement promoting longevity found. Elders who were looked upon for advice were replaced by experts
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Romanticizing the World we had
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some scholars question if the Golden age of aging ever existed. Argue when elders commanded respect, it was because they control property and valued resources. most were portrayed as peevish, forgetful,covetous, dirty. Once the health and mind of the elderly began to decay, wealth was only basis for respect.
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Modernization Theory
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*according to modernization theory, urbanization destroyed extended family households and isolated elders as children left rural areas. in 1880, few young people were living on their own due to lack of jobs and housing, forced to live with parents. in 1910 1/2 of married women over 65 and 3 quarters of widows lived with at least one child. with Social Security elders were able to provide for themselves. that's why in 1990 only 3% were living with a child
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decline of skilled craft labor 1860-1920
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1940s machinery replace traditional tools. in 1850 lesson 1.5 million workers employed in manufacturing. 1880 nearly 5,000,000 workers. older workers had difficulty keeping up many laid-off. 1st union pension instituted in 1905 ran out of money 1920s. 1934 FDR appointed committee on economic security to plan a national old-age pension
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Retirement as tool of labor market management 1920-1970
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1935 Congress passed Social Security act provided retirement benefits for workers at 65. 1950s half of all unionized workers covered by pension plan eased withdrawal from labor force. 1960s employers added early retirement incentive programs(ERIPs) for those under 65
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Elizabethan poor law of 1601
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the Elizabethan poor law of 1601 establish a system of local government, local responsibility for the poor. required communities to assist their permanent residents. designed to restrict aid to those truly in need: the lame, impotent, old, blind and widow. excluded able-bodied poor.
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Almshouse/poor house
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*in 1664, almshouse built in Boston. 1st institution for the poor *1820-1860, 5 million immigrants entered the US, many without jobs entered almshouses * between 1820& 1840, 144 almshouses erected in Massachusetts alone * at the end of the 19th century,1/3 were aged, by 1923, 67%
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growth of nursing home industry 1920-1970
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Almshouses converted into old age homes which became nursing home industry. not until 1950s did amendments to the Social Security act make state welfare departments negotiate with private nursing homes for the care of the aged. nursing homes expanded again after Medicaid program enacted in 1965. by early 1970s more than 1 million elders reside in nursing homes
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Research: the puzzle and Methodology
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Methodological puzzle: distinguishing the difference between Age Changes & Age Differences
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Age Changes
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Changes in the same individual over time
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Age Differences
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Differences between people of different ages usually resulting from: 1. Aging effects: changes due to development of people as they age-may be intrinsic or reactive 2. Period effects: changes due to impact of some significant historical event 3. Cohort effects: social changes as a result of 1 cohort replacing another
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Origins of social gerontology
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Great Depression of 1930s, interest in physical decline concerns about well being of aged
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Disengagement theory/ micro-theories of aging
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1st formal theory of aging, proposed 1961 by Elaine Cumming & William Henry * argued normal aging involves natural & inevitable mutual withdrawal/ disengagement * understanding that death is near and prepare to withdraw from society
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Activity theory/ Micro-theories of aging
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proposed by Robert Havighurst argued that people who age out to mentally managed to stay active and resist the shrinkage of his social world * successful aging = active aging
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Laguna Hill Leisure world study/ Activity theory
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*found that participants in informal activity was the best predictor of life satisfaction * elders who are engaged in productive activities & have social networks less likely to be depressed
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Disengagement versus Activity theory
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*Social Gerontologist no longer view the withdrawal of elders from social roles and interaction as normal aging. *Reasoned that disengagement is associated with changes that makes it difficult for people to remain active. *Widowhood, poor health, and retirement are all correlated with disengagement and better predictors of activity level that age.
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Continuity theory/ micro theory
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represents a more formal elaboration of Activity theory, using a life course perspective to define normal aging. *Emphasizes that personality plays a major role in adjustment to aging & that adult development is a continuous process
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Subculture theory/ micro theory
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Shared several traits with activity theory & disengagement theory. Subcultures develop under 2 sets of circumstances: 1. when people share similar interests, problems& concerns or long-standing friendships, may form a subculture 2. developed when groups of people are excluded from full participation in the wider society
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Subculture Theory
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Developed by Arnold Rose, argued older people were subject to both conditions of subculture. Elder share: common interests, role changes, generational experiences in rapidly changing society, excluded by younger people. within the subculture of the elderly, high status is conferred on those good physical & mental health
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Exchange theory/micro theories of aging
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interaction between old and young decrease because old people have fewer resource to bring to exchange-lower income, poorer health, less education. declining resources strain their possibilities for continued interaction with others
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exchange theory/ micro-theories of aging
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resources are often on equal& actors will continue to engage in exchanges only as long as the benefits are greater than the cost ** Exchange theory fails to recognize distinction between immediate exchange strategies and deferred exchange strategies
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Social Constructionism
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Modernization theory: nations could replace on a continual and ranging from least developed the most about *Sociologists Donald Cowgill and Lowell Holmes expanded theory; included societies preliterate to modern & status of elders high in preliterate societies
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Social Change/ 4 types
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Health, Technology, Economic technology, Urbanization
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Age Stratification theory
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1 of the most influential & enduring gerontological theories. Matilda White Riley pioneer age stratification theory * analyzes the relationship between age and social structure
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age stratification & research
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research based on 4 questions: 1. how does an individual's location in changing age structure of given society influence his behavior/ attitudes? 2. how to individuals relate to each other within and between age strata? 3. how do individuals pass through key transitions from infancy to childhood, and adolescence to adulthood to old age? 4. what's the impact of answers to those 3 questions on the society as a whole
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Political Economy Theories
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structural influences on aging, emphasizes the relevance of social struggles embedded in power relationships, understands the nature of old-age
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Feminist theories
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illuminates the gender nature of society gender relations are the main subject matter
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Social Gerontologist developed # of theories to explain social context of aging
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1. Role theory 2. Disengagement theory 3. Activity theory 4. Continuity theory 5. Subculture theory 6. Exchange theory 7. Social Construction theory 8. Modernization theory 9. Age Stratification theory 10. Political economy theory 11. Feminist theory 12. Social Breakdown theory
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Role theory
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focus= age-related statuses, roles, norms and stability. *basic premise= growing old- social aging meant surrendering social relationships& roles typical of adulthood, leading to new roles
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social aging means
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age is a mechanism( chronological age/ stage in life) used to determine eligibility, evaluate appropriateness & modify expectations respect to various positions/ statuses/ opportunities in society
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age norms
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age norms are culturally/ legally defined expectations about the roles we can perform at various age or age statuses
