question

sociology imagination

answer

the capacity to think systematically about how many things we experience as personal problems

question

how can a sociology imagination help you better understand your world?

answer

a sociology imagination helps us see the diversity of intimate relationships and question our assumptions about a particular form of marriage being natural as opposed to social origins

question

example of sociology imagination

answer

debt from student loans, competing demands from divorced parents, or an inability to form a rewarding romantic relationship at college.

question

sociology

answer

the study of societies and the social worlds that individuals inhabit within them

question

society

answer

a large group of people who live in the same area and participate in a common culture

question

social networks

answer

the ties between people, groups, and organizations, work

question

globalization

answer

the increased flow of goods, money, ideas, and people across national borders

question

stereotypes

answer

beliefs about members of a group that are usually false, or at least exaggerated, but are the basis of assumptions made about individual members of the group

question

discrimination

answer

any behavior, practice, or policy that harms, excludes, or disadvantages individuals on the basis of their group membership because of their age long before they are too old to do their jobs

question

how can a sociological imagination help us to challenge stereotypes?

answer

it challenges such stereotypes by raising questions about where they come from, what they are based on, who stands to benefit from them, and why they are harmful

question

people watch

answer

we are using information we know about are society to make educated guesses about the individuals we encounter

question

social theories

answer

overarching frameworks that suggest certain assumptions and assertions about the way the world works, for posing such questions and evaluating evidence related to those questions

question

research methods

answer

ways of systematically studying these questions in order to develop new evidence that allows new answers to be generated

question

what types of questions are sociologists particularly well equipped to explore?

answer

how do our relationships with each other, as well as our participation in groups and organizations, affect how we learn and experience education? what about the even broader effects of government social policies, regulations, and laws and the ways they can make education inaccessible or unappealing to certain social groups?

question

how does the social organization of college life shape student's experiences?

answer

universities are organizations. Like other organizations, universities have their own structures, logics, and informal rules

question

does the experience of college benefit everyone equally?

answer

social hierarchies of class, race, and gender shape who goes to what kind of college

question

how are students' college paths shaped by the larger labor markets awaiting students upon graduation?

answer

the u.s economy is undergoing massive restructuring as its manufacturing sector continues to transform into service and high-tech sectors

question

why do social context matter?

answer

sociology is fundamentally concerned with how individuals are influenced by society

question

social context

answer

the influence of society on individuals

question

how do our families and communities shape our social development?

answer

our families shape who we are in a variety of ways: by giving us racial, ethnic, and religious identities; by teaching us the basic rules of society and how to behave in society or in particular social settings; through the networks parents provide us and where they have chosen to live the neighborhood and community in which we grow up. living in a safe neighborhood with good schools, surrounded by families who encourage their children to do well in school and to be ambitious and confident, creates a different set of pathways than that experienced by a child living in an impoverished, high-crime neighborhood with poor schools

question

how do the organizations and institutions we are a part of help us form our identities?

answer

beyond specific organizations and institutions lie the social, economic, and historical contexts of our lives. the state of the world we are born into shapes the opportunities available to us, either limiting or enabling us to pursue different goals and aspirations

question

social interaction

answer

the way people act together, including how they modify and alter their behavior in response to the presence of others.

question

norms

answer

the basic rules of society that help us know what is and is not appropriate to do in any situation

question

what is the distinction between social interaction and social structure?

answer

the importance of the "social" part of social interaction becomes most clear to us when we violate societal rules of acceptable behavior social structures provide both order and organization, but they are often invisible

question

social structure

answer

the flip side of social interaction, refers to the external forces, most notably in the social hierarchies and institutions of society

question

social hierarchy

answer

a set of important social relationships that provide individuals and groups with different kinds of status, in which some individuals and groups are elevated above others

question

institutions

answer

those longstanding and important practices (like marriage, family, education, and economic markets) as well as the organizations that regulate those practices (such as the government, the military, schools, and religion) provide the frameworks for our daily lives

question

roles

answer

our positions within an institution or organization that come with specific rules or expectations about how to behave are partly determined by our social standing

question

where did sociology come from, and how is it different from the other social sciences?

answer

the term sociology is typically credited to Auguste Comte (1798-1859), who first used it in 1839. Comte thought that sociology would eventually become the ultimate science of the social world and would include both what he called "social statics" (the study of societies as they are) and "social dynamics" (the processes of social change)

question

what was the historical context in which sociology began to develop?

answer

sociology and other social sciences began to develop when growing numbers of people began to turn from abstract ideas or debates to thinking about how things work in the real world and how that world could be systematically investigated

question

industrialization

answer

the growth of factories and large-scale goods production

question

urbanization

answer

the growth of cities

question

urban areas

answer

commonly defined as those with a population density of at least 1,000 people per square mile and all surrounding areas that have an overall density of at least 500 people per square miles

question

unions

answer

an organized associations of workers created in order to protect and fight for their rights

question

social movements

answer

collective action aimed at bringing about some kind of change in society

question

units of analysis

answer

units of analysis are important not only because they affect what aspects of our topics we can see-they also shape the explanations sociologist provide

question

what units of analysis do sociologists work with and how do these differ from those of other disciplines?

answer

sociologists work on different levels, with different units of analysis, they typically address a wider range of connections than other social sciences

question

what are some of the spin-off fields that originally started in sociology?

answer

criminology, gender studies, African American studies, Latino/ a studies, organizational or management studies, industrial relations or labor studies, demography

question

how can this book help you develop a sociological imagination?

answer

it's to provide enough background on the key areas and findings of sociological research to provide our readers with foundation for developing your own sociological imagination

question

what does it mean to describe this book and sociology as a whole as a project?

answer

it's something we are collectively engaged in building and something for which there are relatively few completely settled answers

question

why is it essential to review existing research on a topic before asking a new research question?

answer

it helps with the narrowing down of interests to questions, but it helps to know if the ground to be covered is already charted territory

question

what six questions should a sociologist ask to determine the merit of a research question?

answer

do I already know the answer? is the question researchable? is the question clear? does the question have a connection to social scientific scholarship? does the question balance the general and the specific? do I care about the answer?

question

what factors shape sociologists' choices about what to research?

answer

epistemology, values and morals, ethnics, theoretical tradition

question

what is the best method to research a sociological question?

answer

this is the, "who, what, where, when, and how" stage of the research process. It's when we decide what or who to study

question

which types of research questions are best investigated using surveys?

answer

when a research question centers on patterns of behavior among large groups of people

question

when are in-depth interviews required?

answer

when the question is about the thought processes that lead people to have certain opinions or engage in certain behaviors

question

why is choosing the right research method to study motivations and behaviors often a complex process?

answer

we can't assume that opinions lead clearly to behavior, there's a danger in reading motivation from actions. if we want to study opinions, we need to ask respondents about them; if it's motivations we are after, we need to go out and observe real behaviors and interactions

question

how is data collected?

answer

they collect data on the variables using random samples

question

why are issues of reliability and validity so important to sociological researchers?

answer

when sociologists talk about reliability in measurement, they want to know whether, if they used the same measurement technique in an additional study, they would end up with similar results if the measurement reflects what the researcher is hoping to understand about the social world, we say the results are valid

question

what sampling issues do sociologists grapple with when they begin their research?

answer

if and when sampling randomly is not possible, sociologists frequently rely on representative sampling in which they make sure that the characteristics of their sample reflect those of the total population they are studying

question

what types of sociological questions are best studied from a comparative-historical perspective?

answer

questions involving social structure in the most general sense, including institutions, public policies, culture, or social inequalities can often be profitably studied from a comparative-historical perspective, a method of analysis examining a social phenomenon over time or in different places

question

how does the Coleman Report illustrate the challenges of making causal inferences?

answer

educational achievement as measured by standardized test scores. Sociologists have a long tradition of attempting to understand variation in student test scores

question

what are the key strengths and weaknesses of interview methods?

answer

their main strengths is their ability to get at how people make sense of their worlds. the weakness is drawing the interview sample

question

in what way is the main strength of ethnography its central weakness?

answer

the real strength of ethnographic analysis is that it can produce some of the richest, most nuanced accounts of social life in sociology

question

how do sociologists use data coding to help them reach conclusions?

answer

they organize the data according to key categories and concepts

question

how do sociologists decide what kind of general claims to draw from their research?

answer

sociologists go back to the research questions we began with and figure out how the empirical patterns that we uncovered help to answer them

question

casual inference

answer

a statement about cause and effect that claims that a change in one variable is the cause of a change in another variable

question

causality

answer

when change in one variable is a direct cause of change in another variable. for example, long-term smoking is established as a cause of increased risk of lung cancer

question

code of ethics

answer

a set of guidelines that outlines what is considered moral and acceptable behavior in some context (such as within an organization or profession)

question

comparative-historical perspective

answer

a method of research that examines differences across countries or in different historical periods to try to understand what factors cause some specific change to occur

question

correlation

answer

the existence of a relationship between two variables. a correlation exists when a change in one variable is related to a change in another variable. it does not necessarily imply, however, that the change in one variable is the cause of the change in the other. correlation can be contrasted with causality

question

cross-national comparison

answer

research that focuses on explaining the differences between countries, such as understanding why some outcome is observed in one country and not another

question

data analysis

answer

the scientific process by which researchers interpret the data they have collected

question

data coding

answer

the organization of data based on key concepts and categories

question

data display

answer

a visual projection of patterns in data, for example, as tables or figures

question

demographic data

answer

information on the size, structure, or distribution of the population and how these change over time

question

empirical generalization

answer

The application of conclusion from finding about one group or setting to a larger population. am empirical research result is generalized when the same result can be found in another context

question

epistemology

answer

the study of what we think we can know about the world

question

ethnographer

answer

a sociologist who enters the everyday lives of those he or she studies in hopes of understanding how they navigate and give meaning to their worlds

question

experiment

answer

a method of research in which one group gets a treatment of one kind or another, while a control group that is otherwise similar does not get treatment

question

extended case method

answer

way of doing ethnography that emphasizes its contibution to social theory

question

fieldwork

answer

the collection of data about a group through firsthand observation of the group

question

generalization

answer

A conclusion drawn from specific info. that is used to make a broad statement about a topic or person

question

historical research

answer

research on records and documents to understand how people, places or things worked in the PAST

question

hypothesis

answer

A testable prediction, often implied by a theory

question

informed consent

answer

A written agreement to participate in a study made by an adult who has been informed of all the risks that participation may entail.

question

interview

answer

A data collection technique in which an interviewer poses questions to the interviewee.

question

operationalize

answer

When researchers define the methods and techniques to be used to assess and define the concepts that are being investigated

question

positivism

answer

A belief that accurate knowledge must be based on the scientific method

question

probability sampling

answer

A method used by pollsters to select a representative sample in which every individual in the population has an equal probability of being selected as a respondent.

question

qualitative research

answer

research that relies on nonnumeric data, such as words, observations, or pictures

question

quantitative research

answer

research that relies on statistical analysis of numerical or categorical data

question

random sampling

answer

A method of poll selection that gives each person in a group the same chance of being selected.

question

reliability

answer

Extent to which a test yields consistent results

question

representative sampling

answer

A small group whose characteristics accurately reflect those of the larger population from which it is drawn. This type of sample is often used as the beginning of a study or theory

question

research memo

answer

an extended version of research notes, usually organized analytically, that allows researchers to work through their findings and the evidence they have to support them.

question

respondent

answer

a person participating in a study who can be asked specific questions of interest to the investigator

question

sampling

answer

technique to define what or whom to include in a study

question

sociological imagination

answer

A quality of the mind that allows us to understand the relationship between our particular situation in life and what is happening at a social level

question

spurious relationship

answer

-a correlation beween two or more variables that is the result of another factor not being measured

question

survey

answer

A study, generally in the form of an interview or questionnaire, that provides researchers with information about how people think and act.

question

theoretical generalizability

answer

Theoretical concepts derived from the study can be used to develop future theories.

question

theoretical tradition

answer

conceptual frameworks that sociologists use to imagine and make sense of the world.

question

thick description

answer

a rich, detailed description of the ways people make sense of their lives

question

validity

answer

Actually measuring exactly what you intend to measure

question

value

answer

sociologists shape their views of and perspectives on the questions they ask

question

civil inattention

answer

Casual encounters. Each individual indicates recognition of the other's presence but avoids any gesture that might be taken as too intrusive (unfocussed interaction).

question

culture

answer

Beliefs, customs, and traditions of a specific group of people.

question

deviant

answer

A person who commits an act that breaks a social norm.

question

ethnomethodology

answer

Harold Garfinkel's term for the study of the way people make sense of their everyday surroundings.

question

ethnocentrism

answer

the inability to understand, accept, or reference patterns of behavior or belief different from one's own

question

gerneralized other

answer

the social control exercised by commonsense understandings of what is appropriate given a specific time and place

question

interactionism

answer

the understanding that individuals are constructed and shaped by and through communication with other individuals, groups, and institutions

question

looking-glass self

answer

a term coined by sociologist Charles HOrton Cooley to emphasize the extent to which our ownself-understandings are dependent on how others view us

question

reference group

answer

a set of individuals who share similar preferences or social positions and have influence on an individual or members of a group

question

role conflict

answer

Conflicts that someone feels between roles because the expectations attached to one role are incompatible with the expectations of another role.

question

role model

answer

A person who is a consistent and sets a positive example for others

question

role set

answer

the expected ways to act given a particular set of social relations

question

self

answer

the conscious being, personified in a human body, which is made and reformulated through social interactions

question

self-fufilling prophecy

answer

a term coined by Robert Merton to mean the process by which soemone is defined in a particular way and then comes to fulfill the expectations of that definition

question

significant other

answer

a term coined by George Herbert Mead to mean individuals close enough to us to have a strong capacity to motivate our behavior

question

socialization

answer

Is the process of teaching and learning values, norms, and customs through example and the application of positive and negative social sanctions.

question

socialized

answer

the project of socialization, or the process by which individuals come to understand the expectations and norms of their groups

question

status

answer

A term used by sociologists to refer to any of the full range of socially defined positions within a large group or society.

question

subculture

answer

a relatively small group united by sets of concepts, values, symbols, and shared meanings specific to the members of the group

question

sustainability

answer

refers to a system of development and consumption that satisfies a society's current needs without imperiling the ability of future generatoins to do the same

question

why is social interaction vital to the development of self?

answer

the social self is the only kind of self there can be: the self is not a thing, but a process of interaction

question

how do the opinions and judgments of others shape our identities?

answer

because we want to belong and make connections with others, we try to anticipate what will be made of what we do

question

how is interaction in public unique?

answer

a geneticist might think we are each unique because of our biological codes, a sociologist views us each of us as different because no one has had the same set of social interactions

question

how do we develop a sense of self?

answer

the human capacity for consciousness of self, individual reflection on one's own identity and social position, which is made and reformulated through interaction

question

how do we use context and conversation patterns to know what's going on?

answer

there is no freestanding meaning; people always construct meaning by drawing on social context

question

how do individuals manipulate emotion in social interaction?

answer

emotions are also performances we arrange for specific purposes, although the specific content of the displays varies by context

question

what impact have new communication technologies and social media had on our methods of self-presentation?

answer

the new social media, like texting and Facebook, of course change some of the details of the patterns of interaction, but they have many of the same features

question

how do reference groups guide our behavior?

answer

each of us has our own set of these groups, and we tend to stick with our reference groups in part because, once we are in, we spend our time doing things that people like us do alongside other people who do them

question

what role does the voice of the generalized other play in shaping our sense of self?

answer

sociologist call this social control exercised by common-sense understandings of what is appropriate in a specific time and place the generalized other

question

how do we make sense of our worlds?

answer

human beings have specific methods for interacting with others, and people all over the world, regardless of culture or historical moment, use these same methods

question

what causes role conflict?

answer

When compliance with one role requirement may make it difficult to comply with another role, when two or more roles are contradictory

question

how does a self-fulfilling prophecy influence label formations?

answer

even for those of us not in mental institutions, we are surrounded by organizations we have to answer to, and they all have their rules

question

in what types of social interactions is it acceptable to invoke informal rules?

answer

what really makes us competent members of society is not so much knowing all the rules but rather knowing what to do on particular occasions given what is expected of us

question

what makes people conform, and how does conformity impact how we live together?

answer

that people will go along to get along when nothing is at stake explains why they do so when there are strong reasons for compromising the truth

question

what is social structure?

answer

social structure is fundamental to the entire way sociologists understand the human world

question

how are social structures similar to the physical structure of a building?

answer

the structural foundation of a building is what keeps it upright

question

what are the two key components of social structure?

answer

social hierarchies that can be found in any society in which some groups or individuals are elevatedabove others institutional environments are made up of laws, rules, organizations, and the government in which individuals navigate

question

what two critical reasons make social hierarchies an important component of a society's structure?

answer

Where we stand in key social hierarchies will have a huge bearing on our lives and life chances, hierarchies shape our social lives and relationships in many different ways

question

how do social hierarchies shape our life choices and relationships?

answer

social structures contain within them a set of important social relationships, or a social hierarchy, that provides individuals and groups with different kinds of status

question

in what ways do social hierarchies involve power and privilege?

answer

The case of the glass ceiling highlights the ways in which social hierarchies involve power and privilege by which a dominant group seeks to monopolize opportunities and control rewards or at least prevent its existing privileges form eroding

question

in what ways does population change matter?

answer

Changes in overall size of different social roles is critical source of overall social change and impact on individual lives (critical mass, immigration, changes in mix of racial and ethnic groups)

question

why do institutions influence social life?

answer

the second dimensions of social structure involves the ways in which institutions influence social life

question

what are some examples of enduring customs that have been institutionalized?

answer

religion, schools and educational systems, learning

question

why are the institutions of the government critically important to the overall social structure?

answer

Government policy can influence many other instituions in a number of ways

question

how is social structure linked to social interaction?

answer

organized group activities

question

how does socialization contribute to the creation of roles and norms?

answer

social roles create one type of instructions or set of clues for individuals, there is a broader set of constraints that are known as norms

question

what is at issue in the debate over the relative impact of social structure versus individual choice?

answer

on the oneside of the debate are those scholars who more strongly emphasize the ways in which social structure primarily determines our individual lives and behavior

question

why are social structures slow to change?

answer

it has to do with endurance

question

why are path-dependent processes so powerful?

answer

path dependency as the QWERTY example suggests, rests on the idea that paths, once adopted, are extraordinarily difficult to reverse

question

agency

answer

the capacity of individuals (or groups) to make free choices and exert their own will

question

apartheid

answer

a South African policy of complete legal separation of the races, including the banning of all social contacts between blacks and whites

question

critical mass

answer

describes the size of a group or social network large enough to sustain some kind of important activity

question

curriculum

answer

the structure of coursework and content of a sequence of courses making up a program of study in a school or school system

question

demography

answer

study of human population size

question

glass ceiling

answer

an invisible barrier that separates women and minorities from top management positions

question

habitus

answer

a concept introduced by sociologist Pierre Bourdieu to refer to the diverse ways in which individuals develop intuitive understandings and engrained habits reflecting their class background and upbringing

question

immigration

answer

a term that describes the movement of people across borders

question

inequality

answer

the unequal distribution of valued goods and opportunities in society

question

institution

answer

a large group of norms and roles that provide for the basic needs of society

question

institutionalized

answer

the process by which a social practice or organization begins to become an institution; the introduction of formal roles and rules in an organized form

question

interest group

answer

a group of people with common goals who organize to influence government

question

life chances

answer

Opportunities for securing such things as health, education, autonomy, leisure, and a long life

question

life course

answer

The changes in expected activities, roles, rights and obligations, and social relationships individuals experience as they move through culturally defined age categories

question

norm

answer

acceptable standards of behavior within a group that are shared by the group's members

question

organization

answer

a systematic grouping of people brought together to accomplish some specific purpose

question

path dependency

answer

the ways in which outcomes of the past impact actors and organizations in the present, making some choices or outcomes logical and others illogical

question

power

answer

an individual or group to get another individual or group to do something it wants which sometimes involves force to control the agenda of issues that are to be decided to persuade others that their interest are the same as those of a powerholder

question

role

answer

a set of expectations (norms) about a social position, defining how those in the position ought to behave

question

social movement

answer

a movement that represents the demands of a large segment of the public for political, economic, or social change

question

state

answer

a term that is meant to capture than just the current government in power by incorporating the idea that there are permanent institutions that are independent of whomever is in power

question

stereotype

answer

a simplified yet often negative generalized belief about a group of people.

question

structuralism

answer

the view that social structures exert so much power that in individuals are fundamentally limited in their agency or capacity to make free choices and exert their own will

question

welfare state

answer

a government that undertakes responsibility for the welfare of its citizens through programs in public health and public housing and pensions and unemployment compensation

question

what is culture?

answer

a shared system of beliefs and knowledge

question

what are some collective symbols of contemporary U.S. culture?

answer

in the place of a cockfight, we could study the Super Bowl-the most watched cultural event in the country, which features familiar rituals and symbols such as betting on the outcome

question

symbols

answer

communicates an idea while being distinct from the idea itself

question

ethnography

answer

a research method based on lengthy and intimate observation of a group

question

values

answer

judgments about what is intrinsically important or meaningful such as competitiveness

question

how is culture actually practiced?

answer

culture influences the kinds of decisions we make in our lives, whether or not we are aware of it

question

tool kit

answer

a set of symbolic skills or devices that we learn through the cultured environment we live in and apply to practical situations in our own lives

question

language

answer

any comprehensive system of words or symbols representing concepts, and it does not necessarily need to be spoken, as the hundreds of different sign languages in use around the world suggest

question

cultural universe

answer

a culture trait common to all humans

question

in what ways is culture a form of communication?

answer

most linguists and culture sociologists believe that language influences culture without completely determining it

question

mass communication

answer

communication can occur between individuals, or it can occur at large within society

question

digital divide

answer

a term used to describe the discrepancy between people who have access to and the resources to use new information and communication tools, such as the internet, and people who do not have the resources and access to the technology

question

how does culture shape our collective identity?

answer

culture is central to group identity, both in defining a group and in maintaining it

question

group style

answer

the set of norms and practices that distinguishes one group from another

question

mainstream culture

answer

the most widely shared systems of meaning and cultural tool kits in a society

question

subcultures

answer

relatively small groups of people whose affiliation is based on shared beliefs, preferences, and practices that exist under the mainstream and distinguishes them from the mainstream

question

what distinguishes a subculture from the mainstream?

answer

subcultures tend to exist in harmony with mainstream culture, culture-studies scholars in the United Kingdom argued that some subcultures express differences in political and economic power and that setting yourself apart from the cultural mainstream is often an of "resistance through rituals"

question

counterculture

answer

a group whose ideas, attitudes, and behaviors are in direct conflict with mainstream culture and who actively contest the dominant cultural practices in the societies of which they are a part of

question

hegemony

answer

domination or leadership - especially the predominant influence of one state over others. Northern states seemed to be dominating Southern states

question

culture wars

answer

a metaphor used to claim that political conflict is based on sets of conflicting cultural values. (Ex: Same-sex marriage, abortion)

question

how is the concept of culture wars at odds with thte multicultural landscape of the U.S?

answer

there are two dominant cultures squaring off against each other: a liberal culture and a conservative culture

question

multiculturalism

answer

refers to beliefs or policies promoting the equal accommodation of differentethnic or cultural groups within a society

question

cultual relativism

answer

evaluating cultural meanings and practices in their own social contexts

question

global culture

answer

the ongoing interconnection of people across the planet make this an increasing plausible idea, if not yet reality

question

protestant ethic

answer

sociological term used to define the Calvinist belief in hard work to illustrate selection in elite group

question

national culture

answer

the set of shared cultural practices and beliefs within a given nation-state, is an important principle for sociology

question

what produces and reproduces global and national cultures, and what effects do they have?

answer

many important social, political, economic, and cultural institutions are organized along national lines and these have systematic effects on the way people live their lives and the kinds of attitudes and worldviews they develop

question

nationalism

answer

the fact that people think of themselves as inherently members of a nation-was a large scale cultural transformation, perhaps even a sign of a new global culture

question

how do our cultural practices relate to class and status?

answer

the chances are that you know because of cultural signs-the way someone dresses, how they speak, the sports they play, the music they like, the kinds of things they like to do and taste-their cultural preferences

question

what is cultural capital, and in what ways have American elites become cultural omnivores?

answer

the U.S. has a more pervasive mass culture than many other countries, and recent research has suggested that American elites are becoming less snobbish and increasingly behaving as culture omnivores or cultural elites who demonstrate their high status through a broad range of cultural consumption, including low-status culture

question

cultural capital

answer

amount of education, knowledge, taste, skills, manners, and linguistic styles possessed by individuals

question

cultural omnivores

answer

cultural elites who demonstrate status through cultural consumption, including low-status culture

question

symbolic boundary

answer

the kinds of distinctions that people make between themselves and others on the basis of taste

question

how do symbolic boundaries relate to culture?

answer

the symbolic boundaries associated with cultural practices have spatial boundaries as well

question

class reproduction

answer

the processes that cause class boundaries and distinctions to be maintained over time

question

what explains class and status reproduction over the long term?

answer

money

question

who produces culture and why?

answer

in 1845, Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels argued that the people who have the most wealth and power in a society generally also have the greatest ability to produce and distribute their own ideas and culture

question

how does the concept of the public sphere explain how culture is produced in society?

answer

in an ideal public sphere, citizens set aside their own interests, as well as their wealth and status and meet as equals to collectively debate and generate ideas about how to govern collectively

question

public sphere

answer

an area in social life where people can get together and freely discuss and identify societal problems, and through that discussion influence political action

question

counter publics

answer

alternative public spheres through which they produce and circulate their own values, beliefs and ideas

question

networked publics

answer

online public sphere

question

culture industry

answer

the popular culture that dominates the public sphere encourages a passive, conservative public

question

is popular culture an industry or a cultural democracy?

answer

the debate between the culture industry and cultural democracy perspectives on cultural production generally concerns the kinds of art and media produced by large corporations

question

does communication change with the form or medium?

answer

different forms of communication can provide very different experiences even when communicating the exact same content

question

what is the relationship between media and democracy?

answer

the connection between newspapers and the city is actually a strong one

question

how do journalists make the news?

answer

by deciding what to cover and how to cover it journalists don't simply report on the news, they actually help to create and change it

question

journalism

answer

it is a form of communication: it is the production and dissemination of information of general public interest

question

why do certain topics get very little news coverage?

answer

the concentration of media ownership in a small number of wealthy hands the fact that that advertising is the primary source of revenue for the media the media reliance on government officials, corporate leaders and public relations as sources for reporting the power of governments and big business to discipline and threaten media that is too critical the ubiquity of anticommunist sentiment to be aroused

question

framing

answer

reporters cover a diversity of topics but they tend to do so through certain existing story lines and narratives

question

how much choice do u.s. media consumers actually have?

answer

corporate consolidation inevitably means that media are less responsive to the local communities that they serve, and the quality of democratic politics and cultural life suffers as a result

question

in what ways has the internet created new opportunities and new dangers for the free media and democracy?

answer

there is no doubt that activists are using Twitter as a key tool for communicating and mobilization but we don't yet know if this actually makes a difference to the outcomes

question

what are the distinct forms of power?

answer

power involves situations where we can see power at work when one party prevails in a conflict becomes visible once we consider the ways in which those with power prevent or deflect challenges to their authority from arising in the first place those with power convince those without power that the current arrangement is good enough

question

who has power in the one-dimensional view?

answer

a power elite

question

power elite

answer

a political theory espoused by C. Wright Mills which holds that an elite of corporate leaders, top military officers, and key political leaders make most political decisions

question

pluralism

answer

a theory of government that holds that open, multiple, and competing groups can check the asserted power by any one group

question

agenda setting

answer

the act of consciously or unconsciously averting the challenge of potential issues, issues that threaten the interests of the dominant or powerful

question

why is agenda setting in politics important?

answer

the study of agenda setting has paid special attention to the mass media

question

when is power least visible?

answer

if power over others consists of the ability to affect others' interests in a negative way, then this does not necessarily result from positive actions by the powerful

question

how does the state distribute power in a society?

answer

governments make laws, spend large sums of money on a huge number of areas, tax individuals and companies and prepare for war

question

how do states regulate the economy?

answer

through regulation the state tries to prevent economic actors from harming innocent third parties

question

how do states impact who gets what in a society?

answer

states set or alter the rules of the game within which individuals and groups contest each other for power states allocate a huge amount of resources through various kinds of spending programs, known as the welfare state

question

why do states tend to promote the interests of the powerful?

answer

the business confidence theory of the state the relative political power of different groups

question

who has the power in the u.s. states today?

answer

one leader with the people's consent

question

democracy

answer

a political system in which the supreme power lies in a body of citizens who can elect people to represent them

question

progressive income tax system

answer

the rich are expected to pay a greater share of their income than are the middle class

question

what do tax policies tell us about how power is distributed in the U.S?

answer

other changes to the tax code in the U.S. in recent decades have benefited the super-rich and typically enable them to pay much less than the official tax rate would suggest

question

social problems

answer

a wide range of issues that are thought to have harmful consequences

question

why are there only two political parties in America, and why does it matter?

answer

the electoral system established by the Constitution-a "first-past-the -post" electoral system, which the candidate winning the most votes in a single district wins the seat-makes it virtually impossible for third parties to gain traction

question

proportional representation

answer

found in most other countries allow minority parties to gain representation based on the share of the vote they win

question

political action committees

answer

organized by a wide range of individual businesses and business associations, unions, professional associations and ideological groups

question

what contradictory views do Americans hold on policies involving the unequal distribution of income?

answer

most Americans believe that the political system favors the preferences of the powerful that the rich should pay more taxes than the poor most Americans have also come to accept the view that government overall is too big that in the abstract the market is better at solving social problems than the government

question

representative sample

answer

a small group of people selected at random

question

public opinion

answer

to characterize the results of opinion surveys

question

social stratification

answer

examines inequalities among individuals and groups

question

has the enormous gap between rich and poor always existed?

answer

without significant opportunities for some individuals to gain at the expense of others there was relatively little possibility for large inequalities to emerge

question

slavery

answer

one of the first ways that systematic inequalities began to appear

question

feudalism

answer

a social order in which those who own land are entitled to receive the products of the laborers or serfs

question

serfs

answer

they are legally obligated to work for the landowner

question

in what specific ways are societies unequal?

answer

income refers to the receipt of money or goods over a particular accounting period wealth by which we mean the net value of the assets owned by individuals or family is another important indicator of long-term household resources

question

net financial assets

answer

include the total value of savings, investments and other convertible assets

question

consumption

answer

what individuals and families households are actually able to buy and consume-provides a different perspective on their well-being than income alone

question

well-being

answer

captures a number of different dimensions of life that are essential to our everyday lives but that are distributed unequally

question

middle class

answer

a social class made up of skilled workers, professionals, business people, and wealthy farmers

question

class

answer

identify groups of people in similar social and economic positions who have opportunities in life and who would benefit by the same kinds of government policies

question

class analysis

answer

the study of how, when, and where classes exist along these four dimensions

question

bourgeoisie

answer

in capitalist societies this meant that the important class distinction was between business owners

question

proletariat

answer

workers who do jobs for pay

question

socioeconomic status

answer

a person's position in society as determined by income, wealth, occupation, education, place of residence, and other factors

question

how is inequality justified?

answer

those with "talent" are given proper encouragement to develop their talents and pursue excellence for the benefit of all it leads to greater economic efficiency by encouraging people to take risks and invest in business in the hopes of receiving higher returns than if they just worked for someone else

question

egalitarian

answer

where disparities between the poor and the rich are small-achieving growth rates and standards of living comparable to those of the u.s

question

why is America so unequal?

answer

inequality is also higher than in any other rich, democratic country in spite of its enormous wealth, the U.S. has more people living in poverty than most other similar countries

question

how does income inequality in the U.S. compare to other countries around the world?

answer

the U.S. is very unequal compared to other rich countries we have twice as much inequality as Sweden and about one-third more than most other European countries

question

why has economic inequality in the U.S. increased since the 1960's?

answer

the fact that inequality has also risen in most advanced industrial countries suggests that at least some of these factors are shared across the industrialized world the fact that inequality is higher and has risen faster in the U.S. than in other countries suggests that something different is going on

question

skill-biased technological change

answer

technological advancements are creating jobs that require high skill which usually means a college degree or more

question

outsourcing

answer

the contracting of parts of the production process to another party, often abroad, such as when the customer service representative who helps you with your credit card bill issue does so from India

question

economic restructuring

answer

changes in the way the economy, firms, and employment relations are organized that have taken place sine the 1970s

question

productivity

answer

measure of the output per worker per hour

question

progressive tax system

answer

one in which tax rates are higher on richer people than poorer people with the idea being that it is fairer to ask those who can afford to pay more to do so

question

minimum wage

answer

a minimum price that an employer can pay a worker for an hour of labor

question

who is the "1 percent"?

answer

individuals and families in the top 1 percent of income and/or wealth

question

do we all have an equal opportunity to succeed in life?

answer

equality of opportunity would exist in a world where all children have similar chances to succeed in life, regardless of whether they were born in wealthy or poor families

question

social background

answer

their family, the community they live in and grow up in

question

social mobility

answer

the pattern of intergenerational inheritance in a society

question

caste society

answer

one in which the advantages or disadvantages of birth determine fully your social position

question

how do chances for mobility in the U.S. compare to other countries?

answer

when we look at differences in mobility rates across countries, we find that there are, indeed, societies that provide more opportunity to their citizens for upward mobility, regardless of their family backgrounds than others

question

immobility

answer

a situation in which individuals are unable to move from one economic or social class into another

question

what factors affect how much mobility there is in a society?

answer

the amount of mobility will depend on how families work, on how individuals are slotted into jobs within labor markets and on the policies that governments adopt

question

labor markets

answer

the available supply of labor considered with reference to the demand for it

question

what is the relationship between education and social inequality?

answer

education has a dual character with respect to attaining privileged, high-status positions education systems can function to challenge other traditional forms of allocating privileged positions in society

question

meritocracy

answer

a system where rewards and positions are distributed by ability not social background or personal connections

question

how much poverty exists in the U.S. and around the world?

answer

in 2010 about 15 percent of Americans lived in poverty

question

poverty line

answer

a threshold of minimum income necessary to afford basic necessities

question

relative poverty

answer

attempts to capture changes in living standards

question

absolute poverty

answer

one that attempts to define the minimum amount of income necessary to meet basic needs, but one that does not adjust for changes in living standards

question

which factors increase the likelihood of poverty?

answer

education, employment status, minority status, age, and family structure

question

working poor

answer

people who cannot make enough income to be free from poverty even if, as many do, they work full time

question

how does the level of poverty in the U.S. compare to similar countries?

answer

the U.S. has experienced similar economic trends in terms of deindustrialization and economic restructuring which suggests levels of poverty similar to other wealthy countries

question

how does growing up in poverty harm children?

answer

stress is extremely bad for children

question

homelessness

answer

literally the lack of permanent shelter to live in

question

what is social theory?

answer

systematic ideas about the relationship between individuals and societies

question

what three common themes have all of the major sociological theories sought to address?

answer

what is the nature of the individual, and what are the capacities of the individual to act in the context of society? what is the basis for social order, what is it that holds societies together? what are the circumstances or conditions under which societies change?

question

how did the early social theorists make sense of the world?

answer

the foundations of modern sociology, and of social theory as we know it today can be traced to the writings of a handful of key thinkers working in the second half of the nineteenth century and the early twentieth century

question

why did Marx think that societies were so heavily shaped by their economic systems?

answer

Marx believed a society's economic system generated tensions between groups that ultimately give rise to conflict and in extreme cases social revolutions

question

modes of production

answer

ancient societies, feudalism, capitalism

question

ancient societies

answer

based on slavery

question

capitalism

answer

economies organized around market-based exchange

question

socialist

answer

a political advocate of socialism

question

communist

answer

an advocate of communism

question

forces of production

answer

the technological and productive capacity of any society at a given point in time

question

social relations of production

answer

the relationships and inequalities between different kinds of people within the economy

question

capital

answer

can be used to finance business investments and everyone else

question

welfare states

answer

have established many programs such as social security, unemployment insurance and free or low-cost health insurance designed to reduce poverty and inequality even in the context of thriving capitalist economies

question

social facts

answer

regularities and rules of everyday life that every human community has

question

social forces

answer

largely interchangeable

question

according to Durkheim, what social forces regulate behavior so that we may live together?

answer

mechanical and organic solidarity, each of which connected with different kinds of shared morals reflecting the different kinds of societies in which they arise

question

mechanical solidarity

answer

the dominant form of solidarity in what Durkheim called "primitive" societies

question

division of labor

answer

division of work into a number of separate tasks to be performed by different workers

question

collective consciousness

answer

certain ways of acting as right and others as wrong and shared by all members of the community

question

organic solidarity

answer

a very extensive division of labor and mutual dependence among people can be found

question

sacred

answer

those objects, places, beliefs and behaviors that are treated with exceptional deference

question

profane

answer

those objects or behaviors that have no special religious significance

question

how did Weber explain the principles or motivations behind the social action?

answer

instrumental rationality-behavior oriented towards gaining or achieving some specific reward value rationality-behavior guided by a belief in some ultimate value regardless or rewards affectual motives-action that is guided by positive or negative emotions traditional motives-action guided by a belief in following established traditions

question

interpretive sociology

answer

understanding

question

authority

answer

arguments that draw on recognized experts or persons with highly relevant experience

question

legitimacy

answer

we obey them not because of the threat of force but because we believe obeying their orders is the right thing to do

question

what is the distinction between power and authority according to Weber?

answer

power-one person's capacity to do something regardless of resistance from someone else authority-arguments that draw on recognized experts or persons with highly relevant experience

question

traditional authority

answer

legitimacy arising out of tradition

question

charismatic authority

answer

legitimacy that arises out of the perception that a leader is endowed with special powers of gifts

question

legal-rational authority

answer

legitimacy based on explicit rules

question

bureaucracy

answer

a form of organization that operates through impersonal, uniform rules and procedures

question

status group

answer

people who have the same prestige or lifestyle, independent of their class positions

question

how does social closure explain how some status groups seek to gain advantage over others?

answer

social closure captures the various ways that groups seek to close of access to opportunities by other groups

question

stratification system

answer

those inequalities between individuals and groups that persist over time

question

social closure

answer

captures the various ways that groups seek to close of access to opportunities by other groups

question

apart-heid

answer

in South Africa where blacks were often legally prevented from attending the same schools, using certain public facilities, marrying whites, or living in the same neighborhoods as whites

question

how do Simmel's insights on social circles and social distance help us understand how individuals and groups relate to one another?

answer

his insight about the stranger raised larger questions about the nature of relationships between individuals and within or between groups social distance is the concept he introduced to describe the quality of the relationships between people and later sociologists would develop measures of the degree of closeness or distance that individuals and groups feel towards one another

question

social distance

answer

the attempt to map how close or distant individuals or social groups are from one another

question

network analysis

answer

the study of how individuals are connected to other individuals and the consequences of those connections

question

racism

answer

belief that one race is superior to another

question

according to Du Bois, what are the diverse ways in which racism influences the lives of African Americans?

answer

the role of racism in American life and how it impacted African Americans was dissected in a different way in Du Bois's most famous and influential work

question

why did Du Bois argue that black Americans experience a "double consciousness?"

answer

unlike white Americans, blacks had to live multiple lives one as a black person and one as an American

question

structural functionalism

answer

a theory of society in which individuals, groups, and the institutions of any society are guided by an overarching social system

question

according to structural functionalism what roles do norms, values, and institutions play in society?

answer

norms, roles, and values arise and persist because they prove to be good ways of maintaining social order

question

how did conflict theory attempt to explain social inequalities?

answer

some of those conflicts had been channeled into the relationship between unions and employers or into the policies of governments

question

conflict theory

answer

a theoretical framework in which society is viewed as composed of groups that are competing for scarce resources

question

social welfare

answer

programs to help certain groups of people

question

how are symbols key features of the social world?

answer

symbolic interactionism focuses on how people interact with one another and the role that symbols play in those interactions

question

in what ways, according to Erving Goffman is "all the world a stage"?

answer

he compares social life to theater, arguing that our behaviors are similar to the performances of actors

question

significant others

answer

people, such as parents, who have special importance for socialization

question

generalized other

answer

Mead's term for widespread cultural norms and values we use as a reference in evaluating ourselves

question

capitalist state

answer

the government institutions of a capitalist society

question

how did neo-Marxists expand upon Marx's ideas about the capitalist state, the relations between economic classes under capitalism and globalization?

answer

the increasing flows of goods and services across national borders-long before social scientists in other theoretical traditions began to pay attention to an increasingly global world

question

what do sociologists mean by intersectionality when it comes to inequality?

answer

the theoretical approach highlights the interlocking nature of inequalities or what has come to be known as intersectionality: a focus on the linkages among disadvantaged groups

question

how did Foucault view power?

answer

power is everywhere, operating in hidden as well as open forms

question

feminist social theory

answer

which placed gender and gender inequality at the center of its theoretical lens, challenging many of the presuppositions of classical social theory for its male-centered biases

question

patriarchy

answer

a form of social organization in which a male is the family head and title is traced through the male line

question

sex

answer

biological characteristic

question

gender

answer

the social meanings ascribed to being a "man" or a "woman"

question

social constructions

answer

that societies create gender categories and these differences typically are translated into inequalities

question

sex differences

answer

the different ways the world worked for men and women

question

intersectionality

answer

a focus on the linkages among disadvantaged groups

question

what do analytical sociologists mean by structural individualism?

answer

a theory that starts from the proposition that societies rest on the choices and action that individuals make, individually and together, even though these choices and the actions that follow from them are always constrained by society as a whole

question

discourse

answer

what we talk or write about in attempting to understand the world around us and the words and concepts we use to judge things

question

middle-range theories

answer

theories that make specific, researchable propositions about particular aspects of society-are the best approach to developing social theory

question

analytical sociology

answer

sociologists and social theorists have argued that the problem with many existing approaches in contemporary social theory is that they fail to pay adequate attention to the ways in which individual actions and motivations provide the foundation for how societies operate and how they change

question

structural individualism

answer

a theory that starts from the proposition that societies rest on the choices and action that individuals make

question

self-fulfilling prophecy

answer

the idea that if you start to think or predict something will happen, it becomes more likely to actually happen than if you had not

question

unanticipated consequences of social action

answer

the idea that the outcomes of any action we undertake may well be unanticipated

question

mechanisms

answer

the processes in which one thing causes something else

question

signals

answer

information about the consequences of a course of action given from one person or group to another

question

trust

answer

how much individuals or groups are willing to trust other individuals or groups

question

what is religion and how is it organized?

answer

sociologists have no single agreed-upon definition of religion. They understand that the actual religious behavior of people in every religion is enormously variable and fluid. This section examined the incredible number of religions throughout the world and throughout history, the concept of religion as a social institution and the social function of organized religion

question

what are different ways that sociologists define religion?

answer

religion as a social institution

question

what is the function of the religious social institutions?

answer

...

question

what role do denominations and congregations play in organizing religious activity?

answer

...

question

ideology

answer

a set of ideas that constitutes one's goals, expectations, and actions.

question

supernatural

answer

attributed to a force or entity beyond scientific understanding and the laws of nature

question

civil religion

answer

the sacred beliefs, practices, and symbols associated with a particular nation-state or community, which may or may not contain elements of a traditional organized religion.

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