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Social Neuroscience

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An interdisciplinary field that explores the neural bases of social and emotional processes and behaviors, and how these processes and behaviors affect our brain and biology

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Culture

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The enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, and traditions shared by a large group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next.

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Social representations

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A society's widely held ideas and values, including assumptions and cultural ideologies. Help us make sense of the world.

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Hindsight Bias

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The tendency to exaggerate, after learning an outcome, one's ability to have foreseen how something turned out. (I-knew-it-all-along phenomenon)

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Theory

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An integrated set of principles that explain and predict observed events

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Hypothesis

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A testable proposition that describes a relationship that may exist between events

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Field Research

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Research done in natural, real-life settings outside the lab

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Correlational research

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The study of the naturally occurring relationships among variables

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Experimental Research

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Studies that seek clues to cause-effect relationships by manipulating one or more factors while controlling others

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Random Sampling

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Survey procedure in which every person in the population being studied has an equal chance of inclusion

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Framing

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The way a question or an issue is posed; Can influence people's decisions and expressed opinions

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Independent Variable

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The experimental factor that a researcher manipulates

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Dependent Variable

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The variable being measured, so called because it may depend on manipulations of the other variable

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Random Assignment

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The process of assigning participants to the conditions of an experiment such that all persons have the same chance of being in a given condition.

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Mundane Realism

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Degree to which an experiment is superficially similar to everyday situations.

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Experimental Realism

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Degree to which an experiment absorbs and involves participants

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Deception

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In research, an effect by which participants are misinformed or misled about the study's methods and purposes

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Demand characteristics

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Cues in an experiment that tell the participant what behavior is expected.

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Informed consent

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An ethical principle requiring that research participants be told enough to enable them to choose whether they wish to participate.

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Debriefing

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The postexperimental explanation of a study to its participants. Discloses any deception and often queries participants regarding their understandings and feelings

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Spotlight Effect

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The belief that others are paying more attention to our appearance and behavior than they really are

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Illusion of Transparency

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The illusion that our concealed emotions leak out and can be easily read by others.

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Self-concept

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What we know and believe about ourselves

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Self-schema

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Beliefs about self that organize and guide the processing of self-relevant information

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Possible selves

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Images of what we dream of or dread becoming in the future

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Social Comparison

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Evaluating one's abilities and opinions by comparing oneself with others.

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Individualism

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The concept of giving priority to one's own goals over group goals and defining one's identity in terms of personal attributes rather than group identifications.

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Independent self

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Construing one's identity as an autonomous self

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Collectivism

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Giving priority to the goals of one's group and defining one's identity accordingly

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Independent Self

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Construing one's identity in relation to others

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Planning fallacy

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The tendency to underestimate how long it will take to complete a task

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Impact Bias

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Overestimating the enduring impact of emotion-causing events

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Dual attitude system

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Differing implicit and explicit attitudes toward the same object. Verbalized explicit attitudes may change with education and persuasion; implicit attitudes change slowly, with practice that forms new habit.

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Self-esteem

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A person's overall self evaluation or sense of self-worth

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Terror management theory

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Proposes that people exhibit self-protective emotional and cognitive responses when confronted with reminders of their mortality.

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Self-efficiency

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A sense that one is competent and effective, distinguished from self-esteem, which is one's sense of self-worth.

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Locus of control

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The extent to which people perceive outcomes as internally controllable by their own efforts or as externally controlled by chance or outside forces

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Learned helplessness

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The sense of hopelessness and resignation learned when a human or animal perceives no control over repeated bad events

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Self-serving bias

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The tendency to perceive oneself favorably

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Self-serving attributions

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A form of self-serving bias; the tendency to attribute positive outcomes to oneself and negative outcomes to other factors

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Defensive pessimism

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The adaptive value of anticipating problems and harnessing one's anxiety to motivate effective action.

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False consensus effect

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The tendency to overestimate the commonality of one's opinions and one's undesirable or unsuccessful behaviors.

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False uniqueness effect

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Tendency to underestimate the commonality of one's abilities and one's desirable or successful behaviors

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Group-serving bias

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Explaining away outgroup members' positive behaviors; also attributing negative behaviors to their dispositions

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Self-handicapping

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Protecting one's self-image with behaviors that create a handy excuse for later failure

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Self-monitoring

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Being attuned to the way one presents oneself in social situations and adjusting one's performance to create the desire impression

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self-presentation

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The act of expressing oneself and behaving in ways designed to create favorable impression or an impression that corresponds to one's ideals.

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Priming

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Activating particular associations in memory

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Embodied cognition

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Mutual influence of bodily sensations on cognitive preferences and social judgements

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Belief perseverance

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Persistence of one's initial conceptions, such as when the basis for one's belief is discredited but an explanation of why the belief might be true survives

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misinformation effect

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Incorporating \"misinformation\" into one's memory of the event, after witnessing an event, and receiving misleading information about it.

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Controlled processing

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\"Explicit\" thinking that is deliberate, reflective, and conscious.

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Automatic Professing

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\"Implicit\" thinking that is effortless, habitual, and without awareness; roughly corresponds to \"intuition.\"

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Overconfidence Phenomenon

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Tendency to be more confident that correct---to overestimate the accuracy of one's beliefs.

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Confirmation bias

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Tendency to search for info that confirms one's preconceptions

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Heuristic

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A thinking strategy that enables quick, efficient judgements

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Representativeness Heuristic

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Tendency to presume, sometimes despite contrary odds, that someone or something belongs to a particular group if resembling a typical member.

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Availability heuristic

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Cognitive rule that judges the likelihood of things in terms of their availability in memory. If instances of something come readily to mind, we presume it to be commonplace.

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Counterfactual thinking

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Imagining alternative scenarios and outcomes that might have happened, but didn't.

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Illusory correlation

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Perception of a relationship where none exists, or perception of a stronger relationship that actually exists

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Illusion of control

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Perception of uncontrollable events as subject to one's control or as more controllable than they are.

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Regression toward the average

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Statistical tendency for extreme scores or extreme behavior to return toward one's average

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Misattribution

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Mistakenly attributing a behavior to the wrong sources.

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Attribution theory

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The theory of how people explain others' behavior---for example, by attributing it either to internal dispositions or to external situations

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dispositional attribution

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Attributing behavior to the person's disposition and traits

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Situational attribution

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Attributing behavior to the environment

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Spontaneous trait inference

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Effortless, automatic inference of a trait after exposure to someone's behavior.

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Fundamental Attribution Error

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Tendency for observers to underestimate situational influences and overestimate dispositional influences upon others' behavior.

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Self-fulfilling Prophecy

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Belief that leads to its own fulfillment

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Behavioral confirmation

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A type of self-fulfilling prophecy whereby people's social expectations lead them to behave in ways that cause others to confirm their expectations

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Attitude

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A favorable or unfavorable evaluative reaction toward something or someone

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Implicit association test

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A computer-driven assessment of implicit attitudes. The test uses reaction times to measure people's automatic associations between attitude objects and evaluative words. Easier pairings are taken to indicate stronger unconscious associations.

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Role

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A set of norms that defines how people in a given social position ought to behave

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Foot-in-the-door phenomenon

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Tendency for people who have first agreed to a small request to comply later with a larger request

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Lowball technique

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Tactic for getting people to agree to something. People who agree to an initial request will often still comply when the requester ups the ante. People who receive only the costly request are likely to comply with it

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Cognitive dissonance

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Tension that arises when one is simultaneously are of two inconsistent cognitions. For example, dissonance may occur when we realize that we have with little justification, acted contrary to our attitudes or made a decision favoring one alternative despite reasons favoring another.

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Selective exposure

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Tendency to seek information and media that agree with one's views and to avoid dissonant information.

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Insufficient justification

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Reduction of dissonance by internally justifying one's behavior when external justification is \"insufficient\"

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Self-perception theory

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Theory that when we are unsure of our attitudes, we infer them much as would someone observing us--by looking at our behavior and the circumstances under which it occurs.

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Facial feedback effect

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Tendency of facial expressions to trigger corresponding feelings such as fear, anger, or happiness

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Overjustification effect

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Results of bribing people to do what they already like doing

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Self-affirmation theory

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Theory that people often experience a self-image threat after engaging in an undesirable behavior; and they can compensate by affirming another aspect of the self. Threatens self-concept.

Social Psychology Myers 11 Edition Ch 1-4

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