question

What is the main reason that researchers do experiments? A) for more validity B) to generalize to more people C) to collect evidence in the real world D) to make causal claims

answer

D) to make causal claims

question

manipulated variable

answer

variables that re completely under the control of the experimenter and are set by the experimenter for the purpose of manipulating the levels of the IV

question

Measured Variables

answer

variables that are simply observed and recorded; this could be the DV (outcome variable), other variables usually at least partly determined by or built-in the the subject, or things that cannot be completely controlled by the experimenter but are of interest to measure (e.g. gender, age)

question

Does experimental manipulation allow for causal claims?

answer

YES

question

control variable

answer

a variable that an experimenter controls for the purpose of holding it constant across the levels of the IV -any variable that an experimenter holds constant on purpose

question

The Elliot et al study (about color and perceived attractiveness) is an example of a ___ experimental design. A) correlational B) within-subjects C) between subjects D) quasi-experimental

answer

C) between subjects

question

In the Elliot et al attraction study, what is the most obvious possible design confound that could affect the internal validity of their conclusion? A) the gender of the participants B) color in general C) lighting in the room D) education of the participants

answer

B) color in general

question

design confound

answer

another variable that accidentally varies systematically along with the IV that could also explain the change in the DV.

question

a threat to internal validity occurs only if a potential design confound varies ___ with the independent variable. A) randomly B) systematically C) cyclically D) spuriously

answer

B) systematically

question

In order to be a confound the variable must change ____ with the independent variable

answer

In parallel (they should be correlated)

question

in order for a confound to be a problem, the variable must be ____ the dependent variable.

answer

capable of influencing

question

when and why do selection effects occur?

answer

when systematically different types of participants are in the two groups. relevant for between-groups designs only. Different groups of people are exposed to different levels of the IV. It is the failure of random assignment

question

Does the Elliot et al attraction study demonstrate temporal precedence? A) no, because t wasn't a longitudinal study B) no, because the manipulated variable came after the dependent variable C) yes, because it was a longitudinal study D) yes, because the manipulated variable came before a difference was observed in the dependent variable

answer

D) yes; the IV was manipulated before the difference was observed in the DV

question

With a pretest/posttest design, how can you tell if random assignment worked?

answer

The first measure of the DV should be the same across groups and the second measure of the DV should be different.

question

In order to meet the strict definition of 'experiment,' ___. A) the researcher must be wearing a white lab coat B) the data must be collected in a sound-proof, semi-darkened booth C) all possible confounds must be eliminated D0 at least one of the variables must be manipulated by the researcher

answer

D) at least one manipulated variable.

question

How do experiments support causal statements?

answer

1. covariance- does the DV change? 2. temporal precedence: measure of DV follows manipulation of IV 3. internal validity: most important. Design confounds, selection effects, etc.

question

counter-balancing

answer

in a repeated measures experiment, presenting the levels of the IV to participants in different sequences to control for order effects

question

order effects

answer

when the exposure to one condition (i.e. level of the IV) changes how participants react to the other condition (i.e. other levels of the IV)

question

what is the most significant threat to internal validity for within subjects designs and how can you address them?

answer

order effects, address them by counterbalancing

question

4 was to counterbalance

answer

full counter balancing, partial counter balancing using random ordering, partial counter balancing using a Latin Square, and partial counter balancing with a balanced Latin Square

question

full counter-balancing

answer

all possible orders are used across different subjects. there are K! possible orders for K conditions

question

partial counter-balancing using random ordering

answer

each subject gets the conditions in a pseudo-random (shuffled) or random order

question

partial counter-balancing using a Latin square

answer

K different orders are created such that each condition occurs in each position once

question

partial counter-balancing with a balanced Latin square

answer

latin square where each condition is also followed by each other condition exactly once

question

between subjects

answer

order held constant because all conditions "first" to a given group and individual differences are hopefully equalized because of random assignment

question

within subjects

answer

individual differences held constant because each person is exposed to each level of the IV and order is equalized on average because of counter-balancing

question

upsides to between-subjects design

answer

-need for a control condition that doesn't get exposed to an experimental condition. -use of a manipulation that could have permanent or long-lasting effect once there is exposure -use of a non-repeatable dependent measure -strong demand characteristics coupled with a need for naive subjects

question

downsides to between-subjects design

answer

-requires many more subjects to achieve equal power -possibility of selection effects if your sample is on the smaller side and/or population is widely variable in the DV

question

upsides to within-subjects design

answer

interest in a small effect, brief experiments, and the same subject population

question

downsides to within-subjects design

answer

increased potential for demand characteristics (cuing the clients in on the primary research question) and variety of possible carry-over effects/order effects

question

Eric designs a study to examine drink preferences of university freshmen. He is planning to have all the freshmen who participate in his study drink a cup of coffee then rate their enjoyment of the coffee, then drink a cup of tea and rate their enjoyment, and finally drink milk and rate enjoyment. 1. What is the IV and the DV? 2. what kind of design is this? 3. Eric tells Theresa about the plans for his study and she says she is concerned about an order effect. How can Eric fix this?

answer

1. IV: type of drink DV: rating of enjoyment 2. within-subjects, repeated measures 3. Counterbalance the groups

question

All of the following are advantages of within-groups except: A) participants in the treatment/control groups will be equivalent B) there is a smaller chance of participants detecting the experimental manipulation C) it gives researchers more power to find differences between conditions D) they require fewer participants

answer

B) there is actually a bigger chance of demand characteristics

question

What are the minimum requirements for a study to be an experiment?

answer

has to have at least 1 manipulation

question

comparison group

answer

the other group in the study to give it something to compare to. For example; if you only measures how much one group of people consumed, you wouldn't know if it was more or less than the other group without a comparison group.

question

placebo group

answer

when the control group is exposed to an inert treatment such as a sugar pill

question

confounds

answer

alternative explanations, potential threats to internal validity

question

systematic variability

answer

varies along with the IV, therefore a potential compound

question

unsystematic variability

answer

random; therefore cannot be considered a confound

question

selection effect

answer

occurs in an experiment when the kinds of participants in one level of the IV are systematically different from the participants in another level of the IV

question

2 ways to avoid selection effects

answer

random assignment and matched groups

question

matched groups

answer

first measure the participants on a particular variable that might matter to the DV; for example IQ might matter to anagram ability. Then they would match participants based on this score to randomly assigned groups

question

posttest only design

answer

participants are randomly assigned to independent variable groups and are tested on the DV once

question

pretest/posttest design

answer

participants are randomly assigned to at least 2 groups and are tested on the key dependent variable twice--once before and once after exposure to the IV

question

concurrent measures design

answer

participants are exposed to each level of the IV at roughly the same time and there is one measure of the DV

question

repeated measures design

answer

participants are exposed to each level of the IV at separate times and the DV is measured after each level

question

power

answer

refers to the ability of a study to show a statistically significant result when an IV truly has an effect on the DV

question

2 types of order effects

answer

practice effects and carryover effects

question

practice effects

answer

also known as fatigue effects; a long sequence might lead participants to get better at the task, or to get tired and bored toward the end

question

carryover effects

answer

some form of contamination carries over from one condition onto the next

question

3 main disadvantages to within subjects design

answer

1. order effects (can be managed by counterbalancing) 2. may to be possible or practical. (can't teach a kid to ride a bike twice and measure which one worked better) 3. demand characteristics (catch on to the primary research question)

question

construct validity

answer

how well were the variables measured and manipulated?

question

manipulation check

answer

extra dependent variable that researchers can insert into an experiment to help them quantify how well a manipulation worked

question

pilot study

answer

simple study, using different groups of people, completed before conducting the study of primary interest

question

what type of validity do manipulation checks and pilot studies address?

answer

construct validity within the manipulation.

question

external validity

answer

to whom or what can the claim generalize to?

question

random sampling

answer

how did the researchers get the participants? were they randomly sampled from the population?

question

what do researchers generally prioritize, internal or external validity?

answer

internal

question

statistical validity

answer

how well do the data support the causal claim?

question

what are the 2 basic concerns for statistical validity?

answer

significance and effect size

question

statistically significant

answer

unlikely that the effect happened by chance

question

effect size

answer

the larger the effect size, the more important, and stronger, the causal effect

question

internal validity

answer

are there alternative explanations for the outcome?

question

3 questions for internal validity

answer

1. were there any design confounds? 2. did the experimenters control for selection effects? 3. did they control for order effects?

question

Using a matched-group design is especially important in which of the following cases? A) when you have a relatively small sample in your study B) when you have at least 3 levels of the IV C) when you do not have a control group D) when you are worried about order effects

answer

A) small sample; because random assignment can fail

question

order effects can be controlled by using which of the following techniques? A) random assignment B) design confounds C) increasing demand characteristics D) counterbalancing

answer

D) counterbalancing

question

In an experiment, the reporter wears the same outfit and answers the questions the same way. these are examples of ___ variables in the study A) confound B) covariate C) control D) mediator

answer

C) control variables

question

maturation

answer

a change in behavior emerging due to a phenomena that naturally occurs with time

question

history

answer

something that happened between the pre test and the post test that could improve performance (other than the manipulation of the IV)

question

regression

answer

extreme at pretest and likely to be less extreme at posttest, no matter what effect the IV had

question

attrition

answer

systematic dropout (some particular type of participants likely to drop out)

question

testing effects

answer

scores improve because the participants do a test more than once (practice) or their scores get worse because of fatigue

question

instrumentation

answer

measurement tool changes from pre to post test

question

Jared is conducting an experiment with ESP (extrasensory perception) training. He begins with a pretest of his 40 participants and divides them into two groups based on their scores. The participants with the 10 lowest scores are given extensive training on how to detect the signals. The participants with the 30 highest scores are given no training. Both groups are retested and the average score of the participants with the training improved, while the average score of the participants without the training actually fell. What threat to internal validity should Jared consider? A) History B) Maturation C) Regression D) Attrition

answer

C) regression to the mean

question

which of the following is true of testing effects? A) It is an example of an order effect B) it can lead to increased/higher scores OR decreased/lower scores C) it can sensitize people to being tested D) all of the above

answer

D) all of the above

question

The addition of a comparison group can address all of the following threats to internal validity EXCEPT: A) history B) attrition C) maturation D) regression

answer

B) attrition (systematic dropouts)

question

which of the following experimental designs is vulnerable to MANY internal validity threats? A) post test only B) pre test only C) concurrent measures D) one group, pretest/posttest

answer

D) one group design. doesn't have comparison

question

observer bias

answer

when there is a behavioral dependent variable and the observer's expectations influence their interpretation of the results

question

demand characteristic

answer

anything that would give the experimental group the expectation to improve due to the awareness of the task

question

placebo effects

answer

the participants aren't explicitly trying to help the experimenters prove their hypothesis, but placebo effects are the expectation to improve

question

what threat to internal validity occurs when there is a greater systematic loss of participants in one condition than in the other? A) history B) maturation C) regression D) attrition

answer

D) attrition

question

on the first exam in psych class, the grades are over than the professor expected. She suspects that multitasking is to blame, so she bans computers and cell phones from her class. when she compares the two scores on the two exams, she finds a significant improvement on the second exam. She looks back over the exam and wonders in it was just an easier exam. What threat to internal validity is she considering? A) instrumentation B) history C) maturation D) testing

answer

A) instrumentation because she is questioning if her exam changed and was easier. this is the way that the DV was measured. testing effects is when the students get better at something because they have been exposed more than once, but the tests were different, so this isn't the case.

question

if results show that video game training does not influence attention in children, what would we call this? A) failed experiment B) alternative hypothesis C) null result D) post-hoc hypothesis

answer

C) null

question

12 threats to internal validity

answer

design confounds, selection effects, order effects, maturation threats, history threats, regression threats, attrition threats, testing threats, instrumentation threats, observer bias, demand characteristics, and placebo effects

question

maturation threat

answer

change in behavior that emerges more of less spontaneously over time. also known as spontaneous remission.

question

how to prevent maturation threats

answer

comparison groups

question

history threats

answer

alternative explanation for the change in DV, due to an external event that effects most members of the treatment group at the same time as the treatment

question

preventing history threats

answer

comparison group

question

regression threat

answer

statistical concept called regression to the mean; when performance at the pretest is extreme, the next time it is likely to be less extreme. -occur only in a pretest/posttest design

question

attrition threats

answer

reduction in participant numbers that occurs when people drop out before the end of the experiment

question

testing threat

answer

specific kind of order effect; change in the participants as a result of taking a test more than once

question

instrumentation threat

answer

occurs when a measuring instrument changes over time

question

instrumentation vs. testing threats

answer

instrumentation: measuring instrument changes testing: participant changes

question

selection-history threat

answer

outside event or factor systematically affects people in the study--but only those in one level of the IV

question

selection-attrition threat

answer

only one of the experimental groups experiences attrition

question

placebo effect

answer

occurs when people receive a treatment and really improve--only because they believe they are receiving a valid treatment

question

double-blind placebo control study

answer

neither the people treating the patients nor the patients themselves know whether they are in the real group or the placebo group

question

null effect

answer

IV didn't make a difference on the DV, there is no significant covariance between the two

question

why could a null effect happen when there actually is an effect?

answer

weak maniplations, insensitive measures, and ceiling/floor effects

question

weak manipulations

answer

is the manipulation strong enough to change the DV

question

insensitive measures

answer

the operationalization of the DV isn't sensitive enough to pick up on the change

question

ceiling effect

answer

all the scores are squeezed together at the high end of the DV

question

floor effect

answer

all the scores cluster at the low end of the DV

question

how can the IV cause ceiling and floor effects

answer

if there is not enough variability in the IV, it may cause a floor effect because it isn't significant enough to change the DV and vice versa

question

noise

answer

too much unsystematic variability within each group

question

measurement error

answer

any factor that can inflate or deflate a person's true score on a dependent measure

question

not enough variability between levels

answer

ineffective manipulation of the IV, insufficient sensitive measurement of the DV, ceiling or floor effects on the IV or DV

question

too much variability between levels

answer

measurement error, individual differences, and situation noise

question

6 threats relevant to the one group, pretest/posttest design

answer

history, attrition, maturation, regression, testing, and instrumental threats

question

Dr. Weber conducted a long-term study on friendship. He noticed that the most introverted people dropped out by the third session. Therefore, his study might have which of the following internal validity threats? A) attrition B) maturation C) selection D) regression

answer

A

question

How is a testing threat to internal validity different from an instrumental threat? A) a testing threat can be prevented with random assignment; an instrumentation threat cannot B) a testing threat applies only to within subjects designs; instrumentation threats are for any design C) testing threat can be prevented with a double blind study instrumentation threats can be prevented with placebo control D) testing threat refers to a change in the participants over time; instrumentation threats refer to a change in the measuring instrument over time

answer

D

question

regression threat applies especially: A) when there are 2 groups in the study; an experimental group and a control group B) when the researcher recruits a sample whose average is extremely low or high at pretest C) in a posttest only design D) when there s a small sample

answer

B

question

Dr. Banks tests to see how many training session sit takes for dogs to learn to sit and stay. She randomly assigns 60 dogs to 2 reward conditions; one in which the reward is miniature hot dogs and one in which the reward is a small piece of steak. Surprisingly, she finds that the dogs learn in about the same amount of time. Given the design, what is the most likely explanation for the null effect? A) dogs loved both treats (reward manipulation has ceiling effect) B) she used too many dogs C) she didn't use a manipulation check D) there were too many individual differences among the dogs

answer

A

question

She modifies her design and conducts a second study. she used the same number of dogs and the same design except now she rewarded one level with hot dogs and one level with apples. She found a big difference. she avoided the null effect because she: A) increased the between group variability B) decreased the within groups variability C) improved the studies internal validity

answer

A

question

when a study has a large number of participants and a small amount of unsystematic variability (low measurement error, low levels of situation noise), then it has a lot of: A)internal validity B) manipulation checks C) dependent variables D) power

answer

D

question

interaction

answer

joint effect of IVs; in a factorial design when the effect of one IC depends on the levels of another IV

question

main effects

answer

effect of each individual IV; overall effect of one IV on the DV, averaging over the levels of the other IV

question

in the case of a factorial design, another term for IV is A) interaction B) main effect C) cell D) factor

answer

D) factor

question

the number of main effects that need to be examined is ___ the number of IVs A) more important than B) equal to C) similar to D) independent of

answer

B) equal to

question

IN a 2x2 factorial design, what are all the possible effects to test? A) one main effect and one 2 way interaction B) one main effect and 2 2 way interactions C) 2 main effects and 1 2 way interaction D) 2 main effects and 2 2way interactions

answer

C) 2 main effects (one for each IV) and 1 interaction

question

independent samples t-test

answer

used when there are 2 experimental conditions and different participants were assigned to each condition (between subjects)

question

paired samles t-test

answer

used when there are 2 experimental conditions and the same participants took part in both conditions of the experiment (within subjects)

question

what can you do if you have too much variability?

answer

change to a thin subjects design, increase the sample size, or do a matched group design o reduce variability within each group

question

what if there isn't enough variability between groups?

answer

manipulation check, pilot study, make sure people can do the tasks but make sure they can't do them too well

question

which of the following study types can result in a null effect? A) pretest/posttest B) correlational C) within groups D) all of the above

answer

D) all of them

question

Dr. is curious is exposing people to violent video games causes them to be more aggressive. He assigns half his participants to play a video game for 5 minutes and theater to play for 7 minutes. He dfinds no relationship. What might be to blame? A) weak manipulation B) insensitive measure C) reverse confound D) ceiling effect

answer

A) weak manipulation

question

all of the following are true of ceiling and floor effects except: A) they can be detected by manipulation checks B) they are only problematic in pretest/posttest designs C) they can be caused by poorly designed DVs D) they can caused by poorly designed IVs

answer

B) they are NOT only problematic in pretest/posttest designs

question

interaction effect

answer

whether the effect of the original IV depends on the level of another IV; difference of differences

question

factorial design

answer

there are two or more independent variables

question

participant variable

answer

variable whose levels are selected (i.e. measured) not manipulated

question

marginal means

answer

arithmetic means for each level of an IV, averaging over the levels of the other IV

question

what is the most important effect in a factorial study

answer

when a study's results show an interaction; this is the overall effect

question

how to detect interactions from a factorial design graph

answer

if the lines are parallel, there is no interaction. if the lines are not parallel, there is probably an interaction

question

2 main reasons to use factorial designs

answer

test limits and to test theories

question

between subjects factorial design

answer

each cell has a different group of participants

question

within groups factorial design

answer

each person is exposed to each cell; each level of the IV

question

mixed factorial design

answer

one IV is manipulated as independent groups and the other is manipulated as within-groups

question

Cara is running a study to examine the effect of music on mood. She randomly assigns participants to three conditions — rock, jazz, and country. She has the participants rate their mood with a short questionnaire, then listen to their assigned music for 20 minutes, and then fill out the mood questionnaire again. What kind of design is she using? A) post test only B) repeated measures C) pretest/postest D) concurrent measures

answer

C) pretest/posttest; it is a between subjects design

question

What is the name for a variable that the experimenter holds constant on purpose? A) dependent variable B) independent variable C) confound variable D) control variable

answer

D) control variable

question

What is the name for the level of the independent variable that is intended to represent a neutral condition? A) control group B) manipulation group C) treatment group D) experimental group

answer

A) control group

question

Participants in a research study are given a list of words to study for 3 minutes and then, following a delay, are asked to recall the list. The length of the delay is manipulated between participants to be either 2 minutes, 5 minutes, or 10 minutes. Which of the following scenarios would present a design confound in this experiment? A) all participants in the 2 min condition are tested at 8am, those in the 5 min condition are tested at noon, and those in the 10 min condition are tested at 4 B) the three groups are run simultaneously in 3 different rooms and the room for each condition is randomly chosen before each group arrives C) the same list is used for each condition and is randomized for each participant D) three different experimenters are in charge of administering the task, and they rotate which condition they are administering

answer

A) time of day could confound the results

question

____________ is an extra dependent variable that can be used to help researchers quantify how well an experimental manipulation worked. A) Latin square B) pilot study C) manipulation check D) counterbalancing

answer

C) manipulation check

question

which of the following is NOT one of the 3 most common threats to internal validity? A) order effects B) floor effects C) selection effects D) design confounds

answer

B) floor effects

question

Emma is planning an experiment to examine whether reading to children increases their vocabulary size. She plans to measure the vocabulary size of a group of 18-month-olds, read to them three times a week for three months, then measure their vocabulary size again. How could Emma change the design of the study to remove a major threat to internal validity? A) she could counterbalance her conditions B) she could make it a double blind placebo control study C) she could add a comparison group D) she could ass a manipulation check

answer

C) comparison group

question

Which of the following is NOT a problem that may contribute to a null effect in a study? A) insensitive measures B) design confound acting in reverse C) large sample size D) weak manipulation

answer

C) large sample size

question

What two types of validity in an experiment can observer bias threaten? A) statistical validity and external validity B) internal validity and external validity C) construct validity and statistical validity D) internal validity and construct validity

answer

D) internal and construct

question

An instructor hypothesizes that doing jumping jacks will improve his students' quiz performance. On Monday, he has his class sit in their chairs for five minutes before completing a multiple-choice quiz on their reading assignment. On Wednesday, he has his class do two minutes of jumping jacks before completing the same quiz that they took on Monday. The students performed better on the quiz on Wednesday. What is a possible threat to internal validity in this study? A) maturation threat B) testing threat C) observer bias D) attrition threat

answer

B) testing threat.

question

IN a factorial design study, which effect is usually considered the most important effect? A) the main effect of the second variable B) the main effect of the first IV C) the interaction D) the overall effect

answer

C) the interaction

question

Koordeman et al. (2011) conducted a study on the effect of alcohol commercials on alcohol consumption in a movie theater. Participants saw one of two types of beverage commercials: alcoholic or nonalcoholic. Their consumption of alcohol during the movie was then measured. Finally, they completed a questionnaire on their usual drinking habits. Koordeman et al. found that young adults who generally consume large amounts of alcohol each week were influenced to drink more alcohol when they saw alcohol commercials, whereas the alcohol consumption of young adults who generally consume small amounts of alcohol each week was not influenced by the type of commercial shown. Which of the following is a factor in this study? A) the movie shown B) type of commercial shown C) young adults who consume small amounts of alcohol each week D) amount of alcohol consumed during the movie

answer

B) type of commercial shown

question

Susan designed a study in which she had a group of younger adults (18-24 year-olds) and older adults (50-65 year-olds). She had both groups recite a poem by memory once in front of an audience of 50 people and once in a room by themselves. She counterbalanced the order of these tasks between participants. She had the participants rate their level of anxiety right before they recited the poem each time. What is the factorial notation for this design? A) 2 x 2 B) 1 x 2 C) 2 x 2 x 2 D) 2 x 4

answer

A) 2x2; IVs are age and people poem was recited in front of. DV was level of anxiety

question

What are the two main reasons researchers use factorial designs? A) to use fewer participants and test the limits of an effect B) test limits of an effect and test theories C) increase construct validity and increase internal validity D) increase construct validity and test theories

answer

B) test limits of an effect and test theories

question

How many independent variables and how many cells are there in a 2 × 3 × 4 study? A) 3 IV, 9 cells B) 2 IV, 9 cells C) 3 IV, 24 cells D) 2 IV, 4 cells

answer

3 IV, 24 cells

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