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Dyadic:

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happens between two people, a conversation

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Small group

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involves a number of people who can see and speak directly with one another

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Mass:

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occurs between speaker and a large audience where there can be little to no interaction between speaker and listener

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Public speaking

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a speaker delivers a message with a specific purpose who are present during the delivery of the speech

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Source

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sender, person who creates the message

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Receiver -

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creating, organizing and producing the message- process of converting thoughts into words

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Decoding

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interpreting the message, based on own experience and attitude

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Feedback-

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- audience's response to a message, both verbal and non-verbal

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Message

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content of the communication process, both verbal and non-verbal

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Channel

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medium through which the speaker sends a message, ex- live audience, tv, internet

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Noise

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internal & external (including physical sounds) distractions from encoding/decoding a message

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Internal noise

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- heated emotions, hunger

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External Noise

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ambient temperature, unexpected people

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Physical sounds

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shuffling of papers, cell phone ringing

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Ethics of public speaking

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Demonstrate Competence and Character:

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Competence

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strong group of subject matter

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Good moral character

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trustworthiness, straightforward-ness, honest presentation of message

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Goodwill

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- knowledge and attitude of respect toward audience and occasion

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Consequentialist

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suggests that is the outcome or consequence that ultimately determine rightness

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Rule Based

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- focuses on our duty to do what's inherently right

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Virtue

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emphasizes the role of individual moral character

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Slander

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speech that can be proved to be defamatory- avoid it!

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Hate Speech

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any offensive communication

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Fighting words

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speech that provokes people to be violent

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Ethnocentrism

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the idea that everyone shares their own point of view and points of reference

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Stereotypes

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- Generalizing about an apparent characteristic of a group (race, ethnicity, gender, etc) and applying that generalization to all of its members.

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Dignity

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bearing and conduct that are respectful to self and others

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Integrity

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will avoid compromising the truth for sake of personal expediency

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Trustworthiness

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combo of honesty and dependability, support points truthfully, does not present misleading or false information

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Respect

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address members of the audience as unique human beings and refrains from any form of personal attack

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Fairness

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making a genuine effort to see all sides of an issue, and acknowledge the info listeners need in order to make informed decision

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Civic Minded

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- caring about your community, recognizes that things don't get better unless people volunteer their efforts

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Plagarism

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Passing off of another person's information as one's own - use other people's ideas or words without acknowledging the source -abuses trust, is unethical

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How to avoid plagarism:

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A source that require credit in written form should be acknowledged in oral form during a speech -includes -direct quotes: verbatim presentations of statements made by someone else -paraphrases: restatement in own words -summarized info: overview of someone else's ideas/opinions -include type of source, author/publication/origin, title and date

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Public speaking anxiety (PSA):

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A situation specific anxiety that arises from real or anticipated enactment of an oral presentation

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Causes

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Lack of positive experience • Feeling different • Being center of attention

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Pre-preparation anxiety:

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Feeling anxious the minute you know you will be giving a speech

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Preparation Anxiety

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Overwhelmed by the amount of time and planning is required Cycle of stress, procrastination and avoidance

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pre-performance anxiety

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When the reality of the situation sets in • Anticipate that audience will be watching them or feel as if their ideas aren't as focused or interesting as the should be • Use anxiety stop-time to calm anxiety: allow your anxiety to present itself then declare time for your confidence to step in

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Brainstorming:

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A method of spontaneously generating ideas through...

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Word association

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write down one topic that might interest you & your audience, jot down all the things that come to mind until you have a list

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Topic mapping

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lay out words in diagram to show categorical relationships among them

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Internet tools

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use of google, yahoo, etc or library databases

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selecting a topic

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Speech topics must pique both the audience's curiosity and your own

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Constraints

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Purpose • Time • Challenges

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Identify personal interests

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select a topic you're familiar with Current events and controversial topics • Survey grassroots issues • Steer clear of overuse/trivial topics

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General purposes of speech (rhetorical purpose)

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To inform, persuade, or mark an occasion: circumstance determines purpose

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Informative

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increase audience's understanding and awareness of a topic by defining, describing, explaining or demonstrating your knowledge of the subject

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Persuasive

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effect some degree of change in the audience's attitudes, beliefs or even specific behaviors

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Special occasion:

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serve the general purpose to entertain, celebrate, commemorate, insprie or set a social agenda

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Intro

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serves to grab attention

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techniques:

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share a quote or story • pose a question • provide unusual info • use humor • establish common ground with audience • refer to the occasion

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Introduce topic and purpose

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Establish credibility • Preview main points • Motivate the audience • Address practical implications and what the audience stats to gain by listening to you • Convince audience that your speech is consistent with their motives and values

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Main Points

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Key ideas & central themes • Should be restricted to 2-7 main points • Primacy effect: listeners best recall points made at the beginning of the speech • Recency effect: listeners best recall points made at end of speech • Restrict each point to a single idea

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Supporting points

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Represent the supporting material or evidence you have collected to explain or justify main points

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Coordinate are given equal weight

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Indicated by parallel alignment on outline

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Subordinate are given less weight

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Indicated by indentation on outline

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Conclusion

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Signal the audience the speech is coming to an end • "In sum", "finally", "looking back", "in conclusion", etc • Conclude in short order • Summarize key points • Reiterate the thesis • Challenge the audience to respond • Call to action: speaker challengers listeners to act in response to the speech • End the speech memorably

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Techniques:

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Techniques include: • Use quotations • Tell a story • Pose a rhetorical question • Bring speech full circle

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Transitions

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Words, phrases or sentences that ties the ideas together and enable the listener to follow the speaker as he or she moves from one point to the next Use between main points and supporting points • Use previews and summaries as transitions

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Preview

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briefly describes what WILL be covered

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Summary

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draws ideas together before continuing to another point

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Primary

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provide first hand accounts or direct evidence of events

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Secondary

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provide analysis or commentary about things that are not directly observed or created

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Why use databases for research?

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Reliability & credibility • Ability to access scholarly articles

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Hearing

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physiological, largely involuntary, process of hearing sound

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Listening:

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conscious art of receiving, constructing meaning from, and responding to spoken nonverbal messages

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What are the characteristics of listening?

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Listening involves selecting what you will listen to, giving it your attention, processing and understanding info, remembering it, and finally, responding to it (verbally or nonverbally)

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Dialogic Communication

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open sharing of ideas in an atmosphere of respect

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Selective perception

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people pay attention to certain messages while ignoring others

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Listening selective

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We pay attention to what we hold important • We pay attention to information that touches our experience and background • We sort and filter new info based on what we already know

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listening distraction

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anything that competes for attention we are trying to give something else (noise)

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Attitudes

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are the general evaluations of other people, ideas, objects, or events. Attitudes are based on beliefs.

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Beliefs

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refer to our level of confidence about the very existence or validity of something. Beliefs are the ways in which people perceive reality; they are our conceptions of what is true and what is false.

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Values

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Both attitudes and beliefs are shaped

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Demographics

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statistical characteristics of a given population or group. 1. Seven characteristics are typically considered in the analysis of a speech audience: age, ethnic and cultural background, socioeconomic status (including income, occupation, and education), religious and political affiliations, gender, group affiliations, and disability.

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Target Audience

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those individuals within the audience whom the speaker is most likely to influence.

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Maslow's Hierarchy of needs

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Physiological: Air, food, water, shelter Safety: dangerous situations, crime, etc Social: friends, connectivity, fun, support, etc Self-esteem: belief in one's abilities, confidence in self Self-actualization: reaching one's highest potential

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general purpose

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"Why am I speaking on this topic for this particular audience on this occasion?"

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rhetorical situation

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the circumstances calling for the speech—generally determines or suggests the speech's appropriate purpose

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informative speech

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the general purpose is to increase the audience's understanding and awareness of a topic

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specific speech purpose

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a refined statement of purpose that zeroes in more closely than the general purpose on the goal of the speech

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Thesis Statement

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A thesis statement is the theme or central idea of the speech stated in the form of a single declarative sentence. The thesis statement identifies what the speech is about, while the specific purpose states in action form what the speaker wants to achieve with the speech.

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preview statements

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The introduction should also preview the main points, and do so in the order in which the speaker will address them, to help the audience mentally organize the speech. • Simply mention the points, saving any in-depth discussion for the body of your speech.

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Chronological

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Use when describing series of events in time or when topic develops in line with set pattern of actions or tasks

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Spatial

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Use when purpose of speech is to describe or explain physical arrangement of place, scene, or object

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Casual

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Use when cause-effect relationship is well established. Or use to discuss multiple causes for single effect or single cause for multiple effects

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Problem Solution

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demonstrate nature and significance of problem first, then provide justification for proposed solution

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Topical

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pattern of organizing main points as subtopics or categories of speech topic (Of all organizational patterns, this one offers most freedom to structure speech points as desired)

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Narrative

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pattern of organizing speech points so that speech unfolds as story, with characters, plot, setting, and vivid imagery

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Vocal Aspects

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Adjust your speaking volume • Vary your intonation • Pitch describes the range of sound from high to low • Adjust your speaking rate • Use strategic pauses • Strive for vocal variety

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Non-Verbal

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Nonverbal behavior also helps the speaker establish credibility by affecting audience perceptions of competence, trustworthiness, and character

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(logos)

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concerns the reasoned arguments of the message;

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pathos

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the audience's feelings;

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ethos

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the qualifications and the personality of the speaker

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Argument

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a stated position, with support, for or against an idea or issue; It consists of a claim, evidence, and warrants.

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Claim of fact

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focus on whether something is or is not true or whether something will or will not happen

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Claim of value

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deal with issues of judgment, showing why something is right or wrong, good or bad, worthy or unworthy

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Claim of policy

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recommend that a specific course of action be taken, or approved of, by an audience

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Logic fallacies

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A logical fallacy is a false or erroneous statement, or an invalid or deceptive line of reasoning

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Begging the question

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is a fallacy in which an argument is stated in such a way that it cannot help but be true, even though no evidence has been presented. The answer to the question raised by the claim simply restates the claim.

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Bandwagoning

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is the practice of using unsubstantiated general opinions as the basis for a claim.

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Either-or fallacy

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poses an argument stated in terms of two alternatives only, regardless of other options.

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Ad hominem

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arguments target a person instead of the issue at hand in an attempt to incite an audience's dislike for that person.

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red herring

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arguments rely on irrelevant premises for the conclusion.

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hasty generalizations

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use an isolated instance to make an unwarranted general conclusion.

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Non sequiturs

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are arguments where the conclusion does not connect to the reasoning; they "do not follow."

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Slippery slope

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fallacies occur when a speaker makes a faulty assumption that one case will lead to a series of events or actions.

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Appeal to tradition

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arguments suggest that the audience should agree with the claim because that is the way it has always been done.

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Monroes Motivated Sequence

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Attention Need Satisfaction Visualization Action

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Attention Step

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addresses listeners' core concerns, making the speech highly relevant to them.

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need step

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sometimes called the problem step, isolates and describes the issue to be addressed; by showing audience members that they have a need the speaker can satisfy, the speaker gives them a reason to listen to the message.

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satisfaction step

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identifies the solution to the problem; this step offers audience members a proposal to reinforce or change their attitudes, beliefs, and values regarding the need at hand. The speaker also provides support, including evidence that illustrates or demonstrates the feasibility of the proposed solution.

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visualization step

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entails the speaker's presenting the audience with a vision of anticipated outcomes associated with the solution. The purpose of the step is to carry audience members beyond accepting the feasibility of your proposal to seeing how it will actually benefit them.

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Action step

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involves asking the audience members to act according to their acceptance of the message.

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