Psychology Exam Study Guide – Flashcards

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Psychology
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the scientific study of behavior and mental processes
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Applied Research
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designed to solve specific problems
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Basic Research
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pure science, used to find new information
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Fields of Psychology
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clinical, consumer, rehabilitation, health, organizational (industrial)
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Clinical Psychology
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most common psychological career; clinical psychologists use their skills to promote health in groups and individuals
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Consumer Psychology
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study why people buy certain products over others
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Rehabilitation Psychology
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help those who have been involved in an accident or have been ill
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Health Psychology
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find ways to prevent disease and promote good health
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Organizational (Industrial) Psychology
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try to apply psychology to help business and organizations operate
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Types of Psychologists
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cognitive, social, neuropsychologist, behaviorist, humanist, psychoanalysis
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Cognitive Psychologists
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focus on how people think - how they take in, process, store, and retrieve information (Jean Piaget)
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Social Psychologists
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study group dynamics and how behaviors and attitudes influence others
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Neuropsychologists
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explore how the brain works
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Behaviorists
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only study observable behaviors, not mental processes
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Humanists
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focus on the stuff of conscious experience, a person's freedom to choose, and the capacity for personal growth
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Psychoanalysts
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practitioners using Freud's theory of personality and psychoanalysis-a therapeutic technique that attempts to provide insight into thoughts and actions by exposing and interpreting the underlying unconscious motives and conflicts
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Ivan Pavlov
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behaviorist, learning theorist famous for discovery of classical conditioning
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Jean Piaget
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development and cognitive psychologist known for his studies of children's thought processes
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William Wundt
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founder of modern psychology
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E.B. Tichener
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founder of structuralism (theory that the structure of conscious experience could be understood by analyzing the basic elements of thoughts and sensations)
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William James
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first American psychologist and author of the first psychology textbook
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Sigmund Freud
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founder of psychoanalysis
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Neuron
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a nerve cell, receives/carries information
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All-or-None Response
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if a neuron fires, it will fire at same intensity every time
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Sequence of Transmission
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dendrite, cell body, axon, synapse
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Dendrites
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receive messages from other cells
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Synapses
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tiny, fluid-filled gap between the axon terminal of one neuron and the dendrite of another neuron
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Axon
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passes messages away from the cell body to other neurons, muscles, or glands
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Action Potential
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created when a neuron fires, neural impulse that travels from the dendrites down the axon to the axon terminals
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Myelin Sheath
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covers the axon of some neurons and helps speed neural impulses
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Neurotransmitters
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a chemical messenger that travels across the synapse from one neuron to the next
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Central Nervous System
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brain (information processing) and spinal cord (pathway to/from the brain)
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Peripheral Nervous System
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sensory and motor nerves that connect the brain and spinal cord to the rest of the body, consists of somatic nervous system and autonomic nervous system
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Somatic Nervous System
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controls skeletal muscles, motor nerves for voluntary muscles
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Autonomic Nervous System
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controls glands and muscles of internal organs, contains hormones and glands
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Hormones
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chemical messengers produced by the endocrine glands
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Pituitary Gland
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master gland
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Thyroid Gland
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energy gland
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Adrenal Gland
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gland that arouses body in times of stress
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Pancreatic Gland
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gland that controls blood sugar
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Lobes of the Brain
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occipital, temporal, parietal, frontal (see picture)
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Occipital Lobe
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the portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the back of the head; it includes the primary visual processing areas of the brain
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Temporal Lobe
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the portion of the cerebral cortex lying roughly above the ears; it includes the auditory areas of the brain
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Parietal Lobe
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the portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the top of the head and toward the rear; it includes the somatosensory cortex and general association areas used for processing information
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Frontal Lobe
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located just behind the forehead, planning and judgements
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Parts of the Brain
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amygdala, hippocampus, left hemisphere & right hemisphere, brainstem, longitudinal fissure, reticular formation, cerebellum, cerebral cortex, Wernicke's area, Broca's area (see picture)
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Amygdala
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controls emotional responses like fear and anger
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Hippocampus
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a neural center located in the limbic system that wraps around the back of the thalamus; it helps process new memories for permanent storage
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Left Hemisphere
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language
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Right Hemisphere
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spatial abilities, connections between words
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Brainstem
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the oldest part and central core of the brain; it begins where the spinal cord swells as it enters the skull and is responsible for automatic survival functions
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Longitudinal Fissure
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the long crevice that divides the cerebral cortex into the left and right hemispheres
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Reticular Formation
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a nerve network in the brainstem that plays an important role in controlling wakefulness and arousal
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Cerebellum
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coordinates voluntary movements and balance
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Cerebral Cortex
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the intricate fabric of interconnected neurons that form the body's ultimate control and information-processing center
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Wernicke's Area
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a brain area of the left temporal lobe involved in language comprehension and expression
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Broca's Area
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a brain area of the left frontal lobe that directs the muscle movements involved in speech
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Split Brain Research
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(see picture)
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Zygote
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first stage of prenatal development, fertilized egg
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Embryo
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second stage of prenatal development, 2-8 weeks, most of major organs formed
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Fetus
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third stage of prenatal development, 9 weeks-birth
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Teratogens
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substance that crosses the placental barrier and prevent the fetus from developing normally
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Rooting Reflex
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baby's tendency, when touched on the cheek, to open mouth and search for nipple
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Maturation
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process of maturing
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Attachment
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emotional tie with another person shown by seeking closeness to the caregiver and showing distress on separation
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Piaget's Findings
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cognitive stages of development, schemas
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Cognitive Stages of Development
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sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, formal operation
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Sensorimotor
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cognitive stage of development when world is experienced through senses and actions (looking, touching, mouthing, and grasping)
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Preoperational
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cognitive stage of development when things are represented with words and images but lacking logical reasoning
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Concrete Operational
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cognitive stage of development when one thinks logically about concrete events; grasping concrete analogies and performing arithmetical operations
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Formal Operation
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cognitive stage of development with abstract thinking
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Schemas
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organized pattern of thought or behavior
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Harlow's Rhesus Monkey Experiment
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proved that monkey preferred a soft, cuddly mother - attachment is not based on who provides food, but becoming attached to warm, soft parents who cuddle, rock, and feed them
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Secondary Sex Characteristics
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characteristics that distinguish the sexes that do not include the reproductive organs
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Kohlberg's Theory on Moral Development
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preconventional, conventional, and postconventional moral reasoning
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Preconventional Moral Reasoning
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desire to avoid punishment and gain reward
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Conventional Moral Reasoning
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follow rules in order to fit in/be a good citizen
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Postconventional Moral Reasoning
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follow universal ethical principles that represent rights of all
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Erik Erikson's Theory on Development
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infancy, toddlerhood, preschooler, elementary school, adolescence, young adulthood, middle adulthood, late adulthood
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Infancy
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birth-1 year, trust vs. mistrust
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Toddlerhood
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1-2 years, autonomy vs. shame and doubt
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Preschooler
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3-5 years, initiative vs. guilt
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Elementary School
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6 years-puberty, competence vs. inferiority
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Adolescence
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teens-twenties, identity vs. role confusion
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Young Adulthood
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twenties-early forties, intimacy vs. isolation
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Middle Adulthood
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forties-sixties, generativity vs. stagnation
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Late Adulthood
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late sixties-older, integrity vs. despair
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Social Clock
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when we get married, have kids, retire, etc
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Stages of Adulthood
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early adulthood 20-35 years, middle adulthood 36-64 years, late adulthood 65 years +
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Changes as Humans Age
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reactions to death, commitment to love and children (empty nest), most elderly report: satisfaction with life, mellowing with age, regrets on what they didn't do,
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Recognition and Recall Tasks as Humans Age
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...
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Intelligence as Humans Age
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fluid intelligence (reasoning speedily and abstractly) decreases and crystallized intelligence (accumulated knowledge/verbal skills) increases
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Freud's stuff
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levels of consciousness (id, superego, ego), free association, psychosexual stages (oral, anal, phallic, latency, genital), defense mechanisms
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Id
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level of consciousness, part of personality that consists of unconscious, psychic energy that strives to satisfy basic sexual and aggressive drives, operatives on the pleasure principle, demanding immediate gratification
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Superego
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level of consciousness, part of personality that represents internalized ideals and provides standards for judgement and for future aspirations
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Ego
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level of consciousness, largely conscious, executive part of personality that mediates among the demands of the id, superego and reality, operates on the reality; operates on the reality principle, satisfying the id's desires in ways that will realistically bring pleasure rather than pain
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Free Association
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method of exploring the unconscious in which the person relaxes and says whatever comes to mind, no matter how trivial or embarrassing
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Oral Stage
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psychosexual stage when pleasure centers on the mouth (sucking, biting, chewing), 1-18 months
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Anal Stage
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psychosexual stage when pleasure focuses on bowel and bladder function; coping with demands for control, 18-36 months
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Phallic Stage
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psychosexual stage when pleasure zone is the genitals; coping with incestuous feelings, 3-6 years
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Latency Stage
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psychosexual stage when sexual feelings are dormant, 6 years-puberty
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Genital Stage
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psychosexual stage of maturation of sexual interests, puberty on
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Defense Mechanisms
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in psychoanalytic theory, the ego's protective methods of reducing anxiety by unconsciously distorting reality
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Projection
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defense mechanism reducing anxiety by attributing threatening impulses to others
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Denial
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defense mechanism reducing anxiety by refusing to admit that something unpleasant has happened
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Reaction Formation
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defense mechanism reducing anxiety by making unacceptable impulses look like opposites
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Displacement
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defense mechanism reducing anxiety by diverting aggressive feelings to an acceptable object
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Maslow
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humanistic psychologist
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Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs
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physiological-->safety-->belongingness and love-->esteem-->self-actualization
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Self-Actualization Needs
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need to live up to one's fullest and unique potential
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Esteem Needs
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need for self-esteem, achievement, competence, and independence, need for recognition and respect from others
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Belongingness and Love Needs
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need to love and be loved, to belong and be accepted, need to avoid loneliness and alienation
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Safety Needs
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need to feel that the world is organized and predictable, need to feel safe, secure, and stable
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Physiological Needs
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need to satisfy hunger, thirst, and other survival needs
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Personality Traits
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aspects of personality that are relatively consistent
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Big Five Personality Traits
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ocean: openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, neuroticism (emotional stability vs. instability)
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Extraversion
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seek out social stimulation and opportunities to engage with others
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Introversion
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focused on internal thoughts and moods, inward turning
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Personality Tests
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, ex: Myers Briggs, Big Five
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Projective Tests
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, ex: inkblot test, thematic apperception test
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Internal Locus of Control
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individual believes that his/her behavior is guided by his/her personal decisions and efforts
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External Locus of Control
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individual believes that his/her behavior is guided by fate, luck, or other external circumstances
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Classical Conditioning
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type of learning by association, where a stimulus gains the power to cause a response
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UCS
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stimulus that triggers a response reflexively and automatically
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UCR
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automatic response to the unconditional stimulus
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CS
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previously neutral stimulus that, through learning, gains the power to cause a response
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CR
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response to the conditioned stimulus
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Acquisition
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process of learning a new response (CR) to a previously neutral stimulus (CS)
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Generalization
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producing the same response to two similar stimuli
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Spontaneous Recovery
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the return of an extinguished classically conditioned response after a rest period
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Extinction
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diminishing of a learned response of the continual presentation of the CS without the UCS
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Little Albert
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11-month-old classically conditioned to be scared of furry animals by John Watson and Rosalie Rayner (led to questions about experimental ethics) (see picture)
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Pavlov's Dogs
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experiment with dogs conditioned to salivate with the sound of bells (see picture)
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Operant Conditioning
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type of learning in which frequency of a behavior depends on the consequence that follows a behavior
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Frequency of Behavior in Operant Conditioning
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increase if consequence is reinforcing, decrease if consequence is not reinforcing
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B.F. Skinner and Operant Conditioning
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developed the fundamental principles and techniques of operant conditioning and devised ways to apply them in the real world and designed the Skinner Box (operant chamber)
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Positive Reinforcement
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anything that increases the likelihood of a behavior by following it with a desirable event or state
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Negative Reinforcement
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anything that will increase the likelihood of a behavior by following it with the removal of an undesirable event or state
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Punishment
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any consequence that decreases the future likelihood of a behavior
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Partial Reinforcement
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schedule of reinforcement in which reward follows only some correct responses
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Continuous Reinforcement
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schedule of reinforcement in which a reward follows every correct response
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Overjustification Effect
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effect of promising a reward for doing what one already likes to do, reward may lessen and replace the person's original motivation, so that the behavior stops if the reward is eliminated
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Cognitive Map
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mental representation of a place
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Sleep Cycle Stages 1-4
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non-REM
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REM Sleep
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term coined by William Dement, rapid eye movement back and forth, vivid dreaming, "paradoxical sleep"
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Stage 1
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slow breathing, irregular brain waves, easy to wake, 5 minutes
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Stage 2
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slowed brain wave cycle, 20 minutes first time through
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Stage 3
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slow wave
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Stage 4
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slow wave, where one gets rejuvenated, 30 minutes first time through
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Circadian Rhythms
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biological rhythms once every 24 hours, ex: sleep/wake cycle
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Ultradian Rhythms
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biological rhythms more than once a day, ex: stages of sleep through the night
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Infradian Rhythms
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biological rhythms once a month or season, ex: menstrual cycle
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Hormones that Affect Sleep
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melatonin-helps regulate daily biological rhythms, liked to sleep-wake cycle, levels increase during night and decrease with exposure to morning light
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Amount of Sleep as Humans Age
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REM decreases, average amount decreases
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Information Processing Theory
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theory that dreams are a memory related function that shift through the day's experiences
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Physiological Function Theory
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neural activity during REM sleep provides periodic stimulation of the brain
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Activation Synthesis Theory
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mind's attempt to make sense of random neural firings
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Cognitive Development Theory
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dreams reflect our knowledge, part of the maturation process, reflection of normal cognitive development
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Insomnia
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recurring problems in falling asleep/staying asleep
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Sleep Apnea
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sleep disorder characterized by temporary cessations of breathing during sleep and consequent momentary reawakening
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Standards to Define Psychological Disorders (MUDA)
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maladaptive, unjustifiable, disturbing, atypical
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Maladaptive
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destructive to oneself or others
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Unjustifiable
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without a rational basis
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Disturbing
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troublesome to other people
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Atypical
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so different it violates a norm
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Medical Model
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concept that mental illnesses have physical causes that can be diagnosed, treated, and cured
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Bio-Psycho-Social Model
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contemporary perspective that assumes biological, psychological, and sociocultural factors combine and interact to produce psychological disorders
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DSM-IV-TR
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Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, fourth edition, text revision: American Psychiatric Association's widely used system for classifying psychological disorders by dividing into 7 categories
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Sleep Debt
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according to Dement, brain keeps an accurate account; large debt makes you stupid, messes up immune system functioning, increases stress hormones, impairs concentration, etc; can be made up for
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Personality Inventories
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objective questionnaires on which people respond to items designed to gauge a range of feelings and behaviors, used to assess selected personality traits
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Projective Tests
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ask person to "project" unconscious motives onto an ambiguous image in a free-flowing, narrative style
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Abraham Maslow
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humanistic psychologist who proposed the hierarchy of needs
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Recognition and Recall Tasks
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perform memory recall tasks (recall a list of words) worse as we age, performance on memory recognition (recognizing words from choices on given list) stays stable
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Anxiety Based Disorders
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generalized anxiety disorder, panic disorder, phobia, obsessive-compulsive disorder, posstraumatic stress disorder
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Causes of Anxiety Based Disorders
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hereditary factors-predisposition, different brain functions, evolutionary factors, learning factors:classical conditioning, observation, reinforcement
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Anxiety Disorder Symptoms
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anxiety begins to take control and dominate a person's life, at least 3 of:sleep disturbance, muscle tension, irritability, restlessness, feeling on edge, difficulty concentrating
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Causes of Dissociative Disorders
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response to overwhelming stress
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Symptoms of Dissociative Disorders
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sense of self has become separated from previous memories, thoughts, or feelings
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Causes of Schizophrenia
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biological factors (different brain structure (less front lobe activity&more receptor sites), less brain tissue and more fluid, smaller thalamus, prenatal viruses), genetic predisposition, maybe disturbed family and stress
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Symptoms of Schizophrenia
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delusions (false beliefs), hallucinations (false perceptions), inappropriate emotions or behaviors
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Causes of Mood Disorders
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biological factors (heredity and brain function), social-cognitive factors (way we think-attributions:stable, internal, global, situations-as with learned helplessness)
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Symptoms of Mood Disorders
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disturbance in emotions involving magnifications of normal moods (depression or mania)
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Articles
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"Are you a natural?" "Beautiful brains" "Out of sight, not out of mind" "Who's crazy here, anyway"
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