PSYCH1101: Chapter 11: Gender, Sex, and Sexuality – Flashcards
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Sex
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Refers to the properties of a person that determine his/her classification as a male/female.
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Sex chromosomes
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In humans, the pair of genes that differs between the sexes and determines a person's sex as a male/female. *23rd pair differs across sexes: Male: X, Y chromosome Female: same chromosomes -- X
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Gonads
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Glands that produce sex hormones and generate ova (eggs) in females and sperm in males; also, produce hormones. -Female gonads = ovaries (either side of abdomen) -Male gonads = testes (in scrotum)
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Characteristics/Types of Hormones
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No hormone unique to a sex, but levels of hormones vary: -Estrogen & Progesterone higher in women -Testosterone higher in men *Play a role in the development of internal reproductive structures, external genitalia, secondary sex characteristics
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External Female Genitalia (Females)
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-Vulva -Mons Pubis -Labia -Clitoris
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External Male Genitalia (Male)
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-Penis -Scrotum
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Secondary Sex Characteristics
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Traits that differ between the two sexes but are not part of the reproductive system. *Driven by hormones during puberty ex) Males: Facial Hair Females: Breasts
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Gender
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Social and psychological aspects of being a male/female -- influenced by biological factors, socialization, and experience.
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Gender Identity
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May/may not match with biological sex; sense of belonging to sex -- multifaceted.
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Characteristics better used in Gender Identity
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Instrumentality: more masculine traits Expressiveness: more feminine traits *better used to describe this broad spectrum -depend on situation -not systematically related
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Transgender
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Experiencing gender as different from one's physical sex, as in cases of biological males who identity as females and vice-versa.
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Development of Male Genitalia
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-After conception, male and female embryos look alike; females essentially stay the same and males change from "default status" -"raw materials" for gonads and genitals are fundamentally the same -Development of male features: Genes on the Y chromosome (SRY gene) is activated in the first 3 months of pregnancy (only existent in males), causing development of embryonic tests, which produce androgens that spread through the developing embryo *XY embryo essentially turns itself into a male*
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Disorders of Sexual Development (DSD)
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Congenital conditions in which the development of chromosomal, gonadal, or anatomical sex is atypical; formally called intersex or hermaphroditism. --> can be caused by Prenatal hormone exposure, Chromosomal Abnormalities, and Environmental factors ex) very small penis, enlarged clitoris
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"John/Joan" case
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John Money (sex-researcher) experiment on twin boy who lost his penis during circumcision (1960's). -Twin boy essentially became a girl, with "girl parts" and parents raising him as a girl. -With time, "John/Joan" became less interested in being a girl and refused to continue process of feminization. -He struggled with traumatic gender experiences and depression
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"Diagnosis" for Transgender & Treatment
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GENDER DYSPHORIA (used to be Gender Identity Disorder) Treatment: Gradual stages moving from reversible treatments to permanent ones: 1. dressing/living as preferred gender 2. may get hormones, followed by surgery to remove secondary sex characteristics, potentially followed by sex reassignment surgery
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Androgynous
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Having attributes that are typically associated with both genders -- high on both instrumental and expressive qualities
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Biological Approach (Theoretical Approach to Gender)
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-Biological processes that underlie differences between men and women -Draw links between aspects of biological sex and eventual psychological feelings -Looked at differences between the sexes in infancy (boys = larger and more active than girls)
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Evolutionary Psychology (Theoretical Approach to Gender)
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-Focuses on ways that differences between men and women can be understood as serving adapt functions from our distant ancestors. -Views differences between the sexes through the lens of natural selection and adaptation. -Factors producing gender are the product of millions of years of natural selection. -Explains behaviors that enhance reproductive success. -Differences seen can be explained by SELECTION PRESSURES (environmental challenges that confronted our distant human ancestors)
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Sexual Selection **Describes Evolutionary Psych
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Male and Female members of a species differ from each other because of differences in competition and choice. Competition: occurs amongst members of the same sex as they vie for the opportunity to mate with members of the opposite sex Choice: Selecting the "lucky one" with whom the partners will mate
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Reproductive Challenges
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-Women focus on QUALITY-- seeking out sexual partners with adequate resources to invest in family -Men focus on QUANTITY-- reproducing as often as possible *Men cannot be certain whether the child is genetically HIS.
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Sexual Motivation
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Every specie's goal is to reproduce. -Vital to species survival (not individual survival)
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Social Cognitive Theory (Theoretical Approach to Gender)
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Based on how we raise kids -Focuses on learning and development of cognitive schemas associated with sex -How children learn about gender and how they come to occupy a particular gender equality --> emphasize both the way children internalize information about gender and the way the environment reinforces gender-related information --> Learned through reward and punishment because child subtly rewarded for engaging in GENDER-CONFORMING BEHAVIORS and punished for GENDER-NONCONFORMING BEHAVIORS
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Social Role Theory (Theoretical Approach to Gender)
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-Introduced by Eagly -Focuses the ways the division of labor between sexes leads to expectations about what's appropriate behavior for members of each sex. -Acknowledges the physical differences historically influenced different tasks performed by men and women; points out the ways these differences color social expectations and create social structures that limit opportunities for both sexes. --Since women are more innately involved in reproduction and men are stronger/larger than women, differences resulted in a division of labor b/w sexes. --Recognizes the institutional structures and patterns of opportunity that perpetuate gender differences.
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Gender Roles
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Expectations for how females and males should think, act, and feel.
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Gender Stereotypes
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Overly general beliefs and expectations about what women and men are like.
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(Emotion) Empathy
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Person's feeling of oneness wight he emotional state of another person.
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(Cognitive Ability) Gender Similarities Hypothesis
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(Hyde) Idea that men and women are much more similar than they are different --> large gender difference in mathematical and scientific field are unlikely to occur. -Big gap in field is probably coincidental and is a product of interrelated factors, including likes/dislikes, role model exposure, and social support.
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Aggression
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Behavior that's intended to harm another person
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Overt Aggression
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Physically/Verbally harming another person directly. *Most commonly seen among Men
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Relational Aggression
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Behavior that's meant to harm social standing of another person ie- rumors, gossiping *Most commonly seen among Women
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Sexuality (& findings for gender differences: 3)
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The ways people experience and express themselves as sexual beings --> actively associated with sexual pleasure -Men generally thought more about sex, food, sleep combined than woman did, which may not suggest men are more sexual, but that think about their own physical needs more frequently -Differences in: men view more porn, masturbate more, and engage in more casual sex (in study, more men said yes to possibility of it) -Studies show women of all orientations were turned on by all movies showing sexual activity no matter who it was performed by, while men are more targeted and gay men were only turned on by movies showing men, and straight men only by women.
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Sexual Orientation
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The direction of an individual's erotic interests -- not temporary, but embody a wide range of human experiences. *Sexual attraction is more of a CONTINUUM than a dichotomy. *Estimates range from 2% to 10% being "not straight"-- hard to get accurate data
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Heterosexual VS. Homosexual VS. Bisexual
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Heterosexual: same sex attraction Homosexual: opposite sex attraction Bisexual: both sexes attraction
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Thinking critically about Sexual Orientation (5 main points)
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1) Unlikelihood of single cause: Many factors work together 2) Within-group Variation: Great deal of difference in groups, despite same attraction 3) Research Challenges: Hard to research because difficult to find unbiased volunteers; may not hit on all persons part of the population. 4) Meaning of cross-sex similarities: Popular media often emphasizes similarities between women/gay men and men/lesbians, when in reality a female is still a female and a male is still a male 5) Explaining sexual orientation doesn't mean only explaining homosexuality: a good theory should explain how ALL individuals are attracted.
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Evidence of Homosexuality (3 researched possibilities)
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**UNSOLVED PUZZLE - LIKELY DEPENDS ON COMBO. OF SEVERAL FACTORS** 1). Genetic Influences: Twin study in Sweden demonstrated that same-sex behavior was about 35% in men, 19% in men --> although genes play a role, they're NOT strong influences 2). Prenatal Hormones and Brain Differences: prenatal testosterone/androgen; brain imagine: gay men have thicker corpus callosa; heterosexual men and lesbian women have larger right hemisphere, relative to the left --> BUT, Behavior INFLUENCES the brain, so it structure is not entirely innate. 3). Social Factors: Early childhood experience? Gender nonconforming behavior? -Studies found that Childhood Behavior and Sexual Orientation are CORRELATIONAL
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(Sexual Variations/Disorders) Fetishes
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Objects/Activities that arouse sexual desire and interests ex) erotic materials (porn), clothing Tranvestic fetish: pleasure from wearing opposite sex's clothing Sadomasochism: sadistic partner gains sexual pleasure from dominating another person (the masochist) who enjoys being dominated too *Behaviors may seem unusual, but aren't generally abnormal unless principles are violated, then it's considered a Paraphilic Disorder: 1. Individuals are consenting adults 2. Individuals are not put in danger 3. Not experiencing personal distress
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Paraphilic Disorders
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Sexual disorders that feature recurrent sexually arousing fantasies, urges, ro behaviors involving nonhuman objects; the suffering or humiliation of oneself/one's partner; children/other non consenting individuals. Usually involve: -Sexual interests causing distress -Sexual desires involving another person's psychological distress -Desire for sexual behaviors involving unwilling persons or those who can't give legal consent
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Pedophilic Disorder
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(Paraphilic Disorder) Psychological disorder in which an adult/older adolescent fantasizes about or engages in sexual behaviors with individuals who have not yet reached puberty. *Brain scans show pedophile's brains are often characterized by dysfunction.
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Disorders of Sexual Desires and Sexual Response (2 Male, 2 Female)
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Male: 1. Erectile Dysfunction: Failure of the penis to erect. 2. Premature Ejaculation: Experience of orgasm before one wishes it (most common complaint) Female: 1. Problems in autonomic nervous system that disrupt engorgement of labia and lubrication of vagina 2. Delayed/Absent Orgasms
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(Sexual Orientation) Environmental Theories
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Old theories: homosexuality was assumed to be deviant; heterosexuality is the only way -- thought to be due to poor parenting -Research: no evidence for parenting difference for kids who are later gay -most report same-sex attraction in childhood -most try to suppress
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(Sexual Orientation) Biological Theories
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Homosexual Behavior observed in over 1500 animal species: long-term bonding, courtship displays, sexual contact, rearing of young together Twin Studies: Concordance = "matching" b/w twins Identical twins- 52% concordance Fraternal twins- 22% concordance Adoptive brothers-11% concordance Conclusion: Sexual orientation is complex
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(Sexual Orientation) Point Estimates VS. Lifetime Estimates
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Point Estimates: "today, you are.." ex)experimenting in college Lifetime Estimates: "Have you EVER been..." -unchanging
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Oxytocin
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Neurotransmitter released during an orgasm, which plays a role in social bonding
