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Learning

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a relatively permanent behavior change due to experience o One way we learn is by association

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Habits

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form when we repeat behaviors in a given context. As the behavior becomes associated with the context, our next experience of that context will automatically trigger the behavior

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Associative Learning

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learning that certain events occur together; the events may be two stimuli (as in classical conditioning) or a response and its consequences (as in operant conditioning)

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Cognitive Learning

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the acquisition of mental information, whether by observing events, by watching others, or through language

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Observational Learning

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a type of cognitive learning; lets us learn from others experiences

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Classical Conditioning

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a type of learning in which we learn to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events

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Neural Stimulus (NS)

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in classical conditioning, a stimulus that elicits no response before conditioning

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Unconditioned Response (UR)

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in classical conditioning, an unlearned, naturally occurring response (such as salvation) to an unconditioned stimulus (such as food in the mouth)

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Unconditioned Stimulus (US)

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): in classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally- naturally and automatically- triggers a response (UR)

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Conditioned Response (CR)

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in classical conditioning, a learned response to a previously neutral (but new conditioned) stimulus (CS)

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Conditioned Stimulus (CS)

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in classical conditioning, an originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus (US), comes to trigger a conditioned response (CR)

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Acquisition

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in classical conditioning, the initial stage, when we link a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus begins triggering the conditioned response

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Extinction

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in classical conditioning, the weakening of a conditioned response when an unconditioned stimulus does not follow a conditioned stimulus

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Spontaneous Recovery

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the reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response

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Generalization

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: in classical conditioning, the tendency, after conditioning, to response similarly to stimulus that resemble the conditioned stimulus

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Discrimination

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in classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and other irrelevant stimuli

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Learning is defined as "a relatively permanent behavior change due to

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experience".

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Two forms of associative learning are classical conditioning, in which we associate _______, and operant conditioning, in which we associate ___________________.

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two stimuli; a response and a consequence

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In Pavlov's experiments, dogs learned too drool in response to a tone. The tone is therefore a

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conditioned stimulus

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Dogs can learn to respond (by salivating) to one kind of stimulus (a circle, for example) and not to another (a square). This process is an example of

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discrimination.

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After Watson and Rayner classically conditioned a small child to fear a white rat, the child later showed some fear in response to a rabbit, a dog, and a sealskin coat. The child's fear of objects that resembled the rat illustrates

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generalization.

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As we develop, we learn cues that lead us to expect and prepare for good and bad events. We learn to repeat behaviors that bring rewards. And we learn through language, and by observing events and people. What do psychologists call these three types of learning?

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Through classical conditioning, we learn cues that lead us to expect and prepare for good and bad events. Through operant conditioning, we learn to repeat behaviors that bring rewards. Through cognitive learning, we watch other (observational learning), read about their experiences, r otherwise acquire mental information that guides our behavior.

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Operant Conditioning

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a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a enforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher

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Skinner Box

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a box with an attached recording device to track the rate at which an animal presses the box's bar to obtain a reinforce

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Reinforcement

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in operant conditioning, any event that strengthens the behavior it follows

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Positive Reinforcement

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: increases behaviors by presenting positive stimuli, such as food. A positive reinforce is anything that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response

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Negative Reinforcement

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increases behaviors by stopping or reducing negative stimuli, such as a shock. A negative reinforce is anything that, when removed after a response, strengthens the response

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Primary Reinforcers

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an event that is innately reinforcing, often by satisfying a biological need

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Conditioned Reinforcers

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an event that gains its reinforcing power through its link with a primary reinforcer

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Delayed Reinforcers

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a reinforcer that is given in the future like a paycheck at the end of the month

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Reinforcement Schedule

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: a pattern that defines how often a desired response will be reinforced

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Continuous Reinforcement

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reinforcing a desired response every time it occurs

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Partial (Intermittent) Reinforcement

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reinforcing a response only part of the time; results in slower acquisition but much greater resistance to extinction than does continuous reinforcement

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Fixed-Ratio Schedule

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in operant condition, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after a specified number of responses

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Variable-Ratio Schedules

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in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses

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Fixed-Interval Schedules

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in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed

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Variable-Interval Schedules

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in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals

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Punishment

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an event that decreases the behavior it follows

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Shaping

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an operant condition procedure in which reinforcers guide actions closer and closer toward a desired behavior

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Successive Approximations

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you reward responses that are ever closer to the final desired behavior, process of rewarding responses that are closer and closer to the final desired behavior, ignoring all other responses

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Respondent Behavior

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behavior that occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus

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Operant Behavior

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behavior that operates on the environment, producing consequences

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Salivating in response to a tone paired with food is a ______; pressing a bar to obtain food is an ________.

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respondent behavior; operant behavior

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One way to change behavior is to reward natural behaviors in small steps, as they get closer and closer to the desired behavior. This process is called

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shaping.

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Your dog is barking so loudly that it's making your ears ring. You clap your hands, he dog stops barking, your ears stop ringing, and you think to yourself, "I'll have to do that when he barks again!" The end of the dog's barking was for you a

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negative reinforcer

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Continuous reinforcement is reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs. ______ reinforcement is reinforcing a desired response only some the times it occurs.

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Partial

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A restaurant is running a special deal. After you buy four meals at full price, your fifth meal will be free. This is an example of a ______ schedule of reinforcement.

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fixed-ratio

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An old saying states that, "a burnt child dreads the fire." In operant conditioning, the burning would be an example of a

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punisher

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Behaviorism

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the view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. Most research psychologists today agree with (1) but not (2).

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Cognitive Processes

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our thoughts, perceptions, and expectations

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Cognitive Map

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a mental image of the layout of ones environment

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Latent Learning

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learning that is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it

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Intrinsic Motivation

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a desire to perform a behavior for its own sake

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Extrinsic Motivation

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a desire to perform a behavior to gain a reward or avoid a punishment

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Observational Learning

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learning by observing others

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Modeling

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The process of observing and imitating a specific behavior

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Mirror Neuron

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neuron that fires when we perform certain actions and when we observe others performing those actions; neural basis for imitation and observational learning

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Prosocial Behavior

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positive, constructive, helpful behavior. The opposite of antisocial behavior.

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Taste aversion research showed that when rats get sick after sampling a new food, they learn to avoid certain tastes but not the sights or sounds connected to the place they became sick. This finding supports the idea that

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condition has survival value by helping animals adapt to their environment

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We now know that cognitive process play an important role in learning. Evidence for the effect of these processes comes from studies in which rats

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develop cognitive maps

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Rats were carried through a maze without any opportunity to walk around or explore, and they were given no reward when they left the maze. In later trails in which food was given at the end of the maze, these rats immediately did as well as others that had received rewards for running the maze. The rats that had learned without reinforcement demonstrate

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latent learning.

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Children learn many social behaviors by imitating their parents and other models. This type of learning is called

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observational learning.

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______ famous Bobo doll experiments demonstrated that children learn by observing others' behaviors

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Bandura's

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Correlational studies show a link between viewing violence on TV and behaving aggressively, but they don't prove that violence causes aggression. However, most experts agree that repeated viewing of TV violence

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dulls the viewers' sensitivity to violence.

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In what ways do biological and cognitive factors affect what we learn by way of conditioning?

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Biological predispositions place limits on conditioning because we and other organisms come prepared to learn certain tendencies that aid our survival. Despite operant training, animals may revert to biologically predisposed patterns. Our expectations and ways of thinking may override attempts to condition us as well. For example, the effectiveness of treatment for alcohol dependence may be lessened because they will not then be taking the drugs that cause nausea. Other evidence of cognition's influence on conditioning includes latent learning and cognitive maps, which demonstrate that rats learn from experience, without being reinforced for learning maze pathways, for example.

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Jason's parents and older friends all smoke, but they advise him not to. Juan's parents and friends don't smoke, but they say nothing to discourage him from doing so. Will Jason or Juan be more likely to start smoking?

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Although both saying and doing can influence people, experiments suggest that children more often do as others do and say as they say. As children watch, their mirror neurons imitate the behaviors they are observing. Generalizing this finding to smoking, we can expect that Jason will be more likely to start smoking, because his mirror neurons have been practicing that behavior for years.

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What parts do acquisition, extinction, spontaneous recovery, generalization, and discrimination play in classical conditioning?

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First stage: association of NS with US (acquisition). Extinction occurs if the CS appears repeatedly by itself (without the US). Responses may reappear after pause (spontaneous recovery). Responses may be triggered by stimuli similar to CS (generalization) but not by dissimilar stimuli (discrimination).

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Why is Pavlov's work important and how is it being applied?

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Classical conditioning is one way all animals adapt to their environment. Pavlov also taught us how to study a process objectively. Classical conditioning is applied to further human health and well-being, such as in the control of emotions.

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Why were Skinner's ideas controversial, and how are educators, managers, and parents applying operant principals?

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Critics say that Skinner tried to dehumanize and control people. Skinner replied that external forces shape us anyway, so why not direct those forces. Teachers can shape students' behaviors. Interactive media can provide immediate feedback. Managers can boost productivity and morale by rewarding well-defined and achievable behaviors. Parents can reward desirable behaviors. We can use these principles to reinforce our own desired behaviors and extinguish undesirable ones.

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What limits does biology place on conditioning?

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Organisms come prepared to learn tendencies, such as taste aversions, that aid their survival. Despite operant training, animals may revert to biologically predisposed patterns.

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How do cognitive processes influence conditioning and learning?

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More than Pavlov and Skinner supposed, expectations influence conditioning. Cognitive maping and latent learning illustrate learning that occurs without immediate consequences. Excess rewards can undermine intrinsic motivation for an activity.

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What is observational learning and how does it differ from associative learning?

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Observational learning, as shown in Bandura's Bobo doll experiment, involves learning by watching, rather than learning associations between different events. Mirror neurons demonstrate a neural basis for observational leaning, which influences both antisocial and prosocial behavior.

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