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Attribution Theory

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The theory that we explain someone's behavior by crediting either the situation or the person' disposition

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Fundamental Attribution Error

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The tendency for observers, when analyzing another's behavior, to underestimate the impact of the situation and to overestimate the impact of personality

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Peripheral Route Persuasion

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Occurs when people are influenced by incidental cues, such as a speaker's attractiveness

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Central Route Persuasion

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Occurs when interested people focus on the arguments & respond with favorable thoughts

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Foot-In-The-Door Phenomenon

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The tendency for people who have first agreed to a small request to comply later with a larger request

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Cognitive Dissonance Theory

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The theory that we act to reduce the discomfort (dissonance) we feel when two of our thoughts (cognitions) are inconsistent; Occurs when behaviors are inconsistent with attitudes; People have a desire to appear consistent

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When Marco sees a car pass through a red light, he yells "What a terrible driver", and moments later he also slips through an intersection and yells "These roads are awful". What social psychology principle is this?

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The fundamental attribution error.

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How do our attitudes and our actions affect each other?

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Our attitudes often do influence our actions as we behave in ways consistent with our beliefs. However, our attitudes also follow our actions; we come to believe in what we have done.

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When people act in a way that is not in keeping with their attitudes, and then change their attitudes to match those actions, what theory attempts to explain why?

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Cognitive dissonance theory

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Conformity

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Changing one's behavior due to be consistent with group norms; Informational Social Influence; Normative Social Influence

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Informational Social Influence

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Behavior of others provides info; Conform because we see other people as a source of info; Reflects a "desire to be right"; Believe others are better than us; Sherif experiment in 1936

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Normative Social Influence

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Desire for social approval; Asch studies (line test) - most conformed with wrong answer when they answered in a group, to avoid embarrassment; Leads to public compliance

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Which of the following strengthens conformity to a group?

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Finding the group attractive.

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Psychology's most famous obedience experiments, in which most participants obeyed an authority figure's demands to inflict presumed life-threatening shocks on an innocent other, were conducted by which social psychologist?

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Stanley Milgram.

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What situations have researchers found to be most likely to encourage obedience in participants?

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The Milgram studies showed that people were most likely to follow orders when the experimenter was nearby and was a legitimate authority figure, the victim was not nearby, and there was no models for defiance.

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Social Facilitation

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Stronger responses on simple or well-learned tasks in the presence of others; But people perform worse on tougher tasks

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Social Loafing

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The tendency for people in a group to exert less effort when pooling their efforts toward attaining a common goal than when individually accountable

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Deindividuation

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The loss of self-awareness & self-restraint occurring in group situations that foster arousal & anonymity; Mask example

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Group Polarization

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The enhancement of a group's beliefs & attitudes through discussion within the group

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Groupthink

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The mode of thinking that occurs when the desire for harmony in a decision-making group overrides a realistic appraisal of alternatives

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Prejudice

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An unjustifiable (& usually negative) attitude toward a group & its members; Involves stereotyped beliefs, negative feelings, & a predisposition to discriminatory action

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Stereotype

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A generalized belief about a group of people

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Discrimination

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Unjustifiable negative behavior toward a group & its members

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Just-World Phenomenon

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The tendency for people to believe the world is just & that good is rewarded & evil is punished

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Ingroup

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"Us"; People with whom we share a common identity

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Outgroup

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"Them"; Those perceived as different or apart from our ingroup

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Ingroup Bias

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The tendency to favor our own group

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Scapegoat Theory

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When things go wrong, finding someone to blame can provide a target for anger (prejudice)

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Other-Race Effect / Cross-Race Effect / Own-Race Bias

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The tendency to recall faces of one's own race more accurately than faces of other races

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Aggression

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Any physical or verbal behavior intended to hurt or destroy

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Frustration-Aggression Principle

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The principle that frustration - the blocking of an attempt to achieve some goal - creates anger, which can generate aggression

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Social Scripts

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Culturally modeled guide for how to act in various situations

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Mere Exposure Effect

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The phenomenon that repeated exposure to novel stimuli increases liking of them

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People tend to marry someone who lives or works nearby. What is this an example of?

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The Mere exposure effect.

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How does being physically attractive influence others' perceptions?

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Being physically attractive tends to elicit positive first impressions. People tend to assume that attractive people are healthier, happier, & more socially skilled than others are.

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Passionate Love

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An aroused state of intense positive absorption in another, usually present at the beginning of a love relationship

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Companionate Love

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The deep affectionate attachment we feel for those with whom our lives are intertwined

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Equity

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A condition in which people receive from a relationship in proportion to what they give to it

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Self-Disclosure

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Revealing intimate aspects of oneself to others (likes & dislikes)

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How does the two-factor theory of emotion help explain passionate love?

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Emotions consist of (1) physical arousal and (2) our interpretation of that arousal. Researchers have found that any source of arousal (running, fear, laughter) will be interpreted as passion in the presence of a desirable person.

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2 vital components for maintaining companionate love are

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Equity and self-disclosure.

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Altruism

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Unselfish regard for the welfare of others

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Bystander Effect

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The tendency for any given bystander to be less likely to give aid if other bystanders are present

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Why didn't anybody help Kitty Genovese? What social relations principle did this incident illustrate?

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In the presence of others, an individual is less likely to notice a situation, correctly interpret it as an emergency, and then take responsibility for offering help. The Kitty Genovese case demonstrated this bystander effect, as each witness assumed many others were also aware of the event.

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Social Exchange Theory

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The theory that our social behavior is an exchange process, the aim of which is to maximize benefits & minimize costs (will help if benefits exceed costs)

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Reciprocity Norm

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An expectation that people will help, not hurt, those who have helped them

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Social-Responsibility Norm

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An expectation that people will help those dependent upon them

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Social Trap

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A situation in which the conflicting parties, by each rationally pursuing their self-interest, become caught in mutually destructive behavior (no one gains anything)

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Mirror-Image Perceptions

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Mutual views often held by conflicting people, as when each side sees itself as ethical & peaceful & views the other side as evil & aggressive

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Subordinate Goals

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Shared goals that override differences among people & require their cooperation

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GRIT

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Graduated and Reciprocated Initiatives in Tension-Reduction - a strategy designed to decrease international tensions

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What are some ways to reconcile conflicts and promote peace?

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Peacemakers should encourage equal-status contact, cooperation to achieve subordinate goals (shared goals that override differences), understanding through communication, and reciprocated conciliatory gestures (each side gives a little).

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Compliance

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Changing one's behavior in response to a direct request

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Door-In-The-Face Technique

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Asking for a large request & then making a smaller request; Reducing request seems like person is doing favor

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Low-Ball Technique

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Asking someone to agree to something on the basis of incomplete info

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That's-Not-All Technique

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Cialdini; Present a product at a high price & improve the deal by adding a product or lowering a price

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BIRGing

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Basking in reflected glory; We "won" versus they "lost"; More college t shirts worn after win; Close other x good performance x non relevant dimension = increased self evaluation

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CORFing

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Cutting off reflected failure

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Evolutionary Theory (Marketplace Theory)

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Women more likely to value status in a mate, men more likely to value attractiveness

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Double-Shot Theory

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Gender difference in which infidelity (unfaithfulness) is most distressing; Women believe emotions implies sexual infidelity (men believe opposite)

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Communal Relationship

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Desire for/expectations of mutual responsiveness; Close friendships & meaningful romantic relationships

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Exchange Relationship

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Social interactions with strangers/acquaintances

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The Michelangelo Phenomenon

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Self does not emerge independently but is shaped by interpersonal experience; Partners modify each others behaviors

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Partner Perceptual Affirmation

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Degree to which the partner's perceptions of the self are congruent with the ideal self (accurately "see" the best in partner)

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Partner Behavioral Affirmation

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Degree to which the partner's behaviors towards the self is congruent with the ideal self (accurately "draw out" the best in partner)

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Failure to Affirm

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Partner elicits dispositions, values and behaviors that may be irrelevant to self's ideal

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Disaffirmation

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Partner elicits dispositions, values and behaviors that may be antithetical (contrasted) to self's ideal

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Volatiles

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Conflict is part of a larger passionate, loving relationship and may lead to a better relationship

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Validaters

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During conflict, partners validated each others' perspectives and have lots of self-control & calm

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Avoiders

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Conflict is minimized and the couple "agrees to disagree"

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Hostiles

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Frequent volatile arguments characterized by negative behaviors including attacking and defensiveness

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Conflict-Structure Hypothesis

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Women are the ones most wanting change, and the 'changer' is likely to occupy demand role

Psych 101 – Chapter 14: Social Psychology – Flashcards

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