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Drive Theory

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Physiological needs arouse tension that motivates people to satisfy the need (reduce tension) - caused by basic biological needs Ex: hungry --> stomach hurts (tension) --> motivated to eat

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Arousal Theory

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People are motivated to achieve and maintain an optimum level of bodily arousal Ex: prof running up & down stairs to arouse him when bored

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Yerkes-Dodson Law of Arousal

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We seek medium level of arousal (best for performance), but not too much or else we seek a quieter place; Associated with Arousal Theory

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Incentive Theory

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People are motivated to behave in ways that produce a valued incentive/reward

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Intrinsic Incentive

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Engaged in behavior because of internal, personal reason Ex: Go to class because you want to learn

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Extrinsic Incentive

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Engaged in behavior NOT because of internal, personal reason, but because of external reasons Ex: Go to class because you want to get a good grade

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Hierarchical Theory

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Approach that incorporates the various motivation theories by viewing them in terms of levels of need

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Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs

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Top: Need for self-actualization; Esteem needs (confidence); Belongingness and love needs (attachment); Safety needs; Physiological needs (basic biological needs)

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Esteem needs

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confidence

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Belongingness and love needs (attachment)

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friendship, family, social interaction, intimacy, affection

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Safety needs

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security of body, morality, family, resources, property, health, shelter

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Physiological needs (basic biological needs)

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food, water, oxygen, sleep, sex (as survival of species)

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Need for Affiliation

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desire to establish and maintain social contacts

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Need for Intimacy

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desire for close relationships characterized by open and intimate communication

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Need for Intimacy -- Self-Disclosure

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• Self-Disclosure = sharing of intimate details about oneself to another person - Reciprocity: both share something - Gender differences: women tend to reveal more and make men disclose info - Reveal more as relationship grows, over time: ppl with a need to reveal too much freak people out -- mystery is good

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Eisenberger et al., 2003 and Kross et al., 2010 findings on relationship between social rejection and physical pain

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Pain of social rejection similar to that of physical pain--the same neural regions are activated

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DePaulo's and Kashy's 1998 Research

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We're most likely to lie to strangers

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Achievement Motivation

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- strong desire to accomplish difficult tasks, outperform others, and excel

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Cross-cultural differences in Achievement Motivation

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Parker & Lepper, 1992: Findings: Success motivated Canadian students; failure motivated Japanese students

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Mastery vs Performance Orientation

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Mastery: desire to learn (much less anxious and more likely to preserver in set-backs) Performance: focused on grade (generally extremely anxious, give up more easily in defeat)

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Need for Power

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Strong desire to acquire prestige and influence over other people (like police, people in politics, etc)

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Self-Actualization

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Only when lower needs are met can one potentially attain self-actualization - Fulfilling one's unique potential - Having meaningful goals • not a fixed state • a moment of self-actualization, then find new longterm goals

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The Paradoxical Effect: Motivating People at Work

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- Many companies use incentive programs to motivate their employees - Extrinsic incentives can undermine intrinsic motivation (Deci, 1971) --> When you give people stuff, it will diminish their performance - Increasing extrinsic incentives makes performance worse on tasks that involve thinking or creativity (once you get above rudimentary cognitive skill) - once you take the reward away, people don't want to do it anymore

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Impression Formation

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process of forming impressions - we categorize people (automatically) - categories that stand out tend to be activated (gender, race, age) - Schemas associated with category become more accessible (think of stereotypes of certain categories) - Determines out decision to approach/withdrawal - First impressions not always accurate

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Cognitive-Confirmation Bias: Primacy Effect

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- Tendency to be more influenced by initial information about a person than by information gathered later - Ex: tv show about speed dating, "hot" but racist chick still wanted b/c of looks instead of frumpy but nice chick

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Behavioral-Confirmation Bias: Self-Fulfilling Prophecy

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- A person's expectation (based upon first impression) can lead to its own fulfillment - Teacher expectancy example: students that were said to be intellectual bloomers were treated differently and more focused more

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Improving Accuracy in Impression Formation

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- Don't adhere to your first impression! Put yourself in check -- look for more data in that person - Controlled Processing: Move beyond biased initial impression and consider more complete information

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Controlled Processing

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- Move beyond biased initial impression and consider more complete information - Anticipated Accountability: the expectation that you will be required to justify your response (can eliminate the primacy effect)

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Attribution

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- Explaining the behavior of individuals - We are observing people everyday and trying to explain why

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Dispositional Attribution

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- Blame or credit person's behavior by traits/personality, attitudes, & goals - our default; hinges on social desirability--especially if behavior is disapproved of - individualist cultures

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Situational Attribution

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Blame or credit situation, which influenced a person to behave in a particular way - we use when characteristics of the situation are hard to ignore - collectivist culture

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Attribution Bias: 1. Fundamental Attribution Error

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- Tendency to attribute behavior to personal characteristics rather than situational influence - Ex: blaming woman in traffic

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Attribution Bias: 2. Actor-observer Bias

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Dispositional bias when explaining other people's behavior, but a situational bias when explaining our own Ex: "I have a reason- I have a class to teach!"

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Attribution Bias: 3. Self-Serving Bias

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Success caused by disposition (person); failure caused by situations Ex: doing well on an exam Opposite in Depressed people

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Stanford Prison Experiment

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Despite our dispositional biases, the SITUATION is a powerful determinant of behavior

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Social Facilitation

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(Zajonc, 1965) Tendency for presence of others to enhance performance on simple tasks and impair performance complex tasks Ex: learned guitar alone (I'm good), play in front of people (not so good)

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Social Loafing

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- Tendency for people to exert less effort in group tasks where individual efforts are "pooled" - can decrease by assigning tasks - Ex: Group Projects

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Conformity

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Changing your behavior to match social norma of groups when real or imagined social pressure is exerted

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Conformity - Solomon Asch (1951)

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- Compare three lines to "standard" line - First 2 rounds, everyone agrees, in next round confederates choose obviously incorrect answer - 75% of participants went with wrong answer at least once Finding: You're likely to conform

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Milgram Obedience Experiment ; Burger's (2009) Partial Replication of the Study

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- People shocking other person if response was incorrect - Finding: No participant quit below 300 volts, 65% delivered the maximum 450 volts to the learner b/c someone said to --> power of authority - Burger (2009) -- People would do the same today

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Informational Influence

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We want to be RIGHT Ex: in debates?

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Normative Influence

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We want to be LIKED Ex: peer pressure

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3 Tenets of Social Impact theory

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1. Strength (significance) of people who might influence you 2. Immediacy (how often are you in the presence of a group) 3. Number of ppl in group (up to 5) Ex: teenagers & highschool

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Common-Sense View of Emotion

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1. Perception of Stimuli 2. Emotional Experience 3. Physiological Response

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James-Lange Theory of Emotion

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1. Perceived Event 2. Physiological and Behavioral Responses 3. Emotional Experience

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Cannon-Bard Theory of Emotion

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Perceived Event > Physiological/Behavioral Responses AND Emotional Experience (occurs simultaneously)

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Modern Biopsychological Theory of Emotion

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Perception, physiological reactions and emotional experience are mutually INFLUENTIAL

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Sympathetic Division

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mild, unpleasant stimulation more unpleasant, more active sympathetic division is

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Parasympathetic Division

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mild, pleasant stimulation (restores calm) more pleasant, more active parasympathetic division is - think: para = pleasant

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Expressive Component of Emotion

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2 functions: - Nonverbal communication (signals to others how we feel) - Sensory feedback (signals to ourselves how we feel) - Facial expressions, gaze/eye contact, touch

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Facial Expressions

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6 emotions universally expressed: Mad, Scared, Disgusted, Surprised, Happy, Sad - Happiness is most accurately identified

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Gaze (eye contact)

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- Interpreted in light of preexisting relationships - "If you look at someone for more than 5 seconds, either want to fight you or f you"

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Touch

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- Expression of intimacy - Expression of dominance and control - Can influence first impressions (handshake) - Expression of primary emotions Social Functions: 1. Reward feeling 2. Safety

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Gender Differences - Dacher Keltner Video on Touch

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Men were not able to identify anger in women. Women were not able to identify compassion in men. Most guesses on emotions, based on touch were accurate

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Cognitive Appraisal

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Event > Primary Appraisal > Secondary Appraisal > Coping

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Primary Appraisal

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Decide if the event is a threat or not

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Secondary Appraisal

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Chose the response to the threat

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Coping

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Execution of the response

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Stress Moderator Variables

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Influence primary and secondary appraisals Ex: fatigue, intoxication, personality

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Stress

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An unpleasant state of arousal that occurs when we perceive that an event threatens our ability to cope 3 types: 1. Catastrophes/Traumatic Events 2. Major Life Events 3. Microstressors

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Catastrophes / Traumatic Events

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- Natural disasters - combat - survivor of violent crime - witnessing violent crime - surviving abuse - witnessing domestic violence

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Major Life Events

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- Death of a loved one - Marriage - Divorce - Promotion - Moving - New job - Graduating from college - Holidays

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Microstressors (Daily Hassles)

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- Job/School pressures - Traffic - Parking - Burnout/fatigue - Noise - Crowded environments - Extreme heat or cold How you cope with the daily hassles is more predictive of extreme anxiety and depression

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Coping with Stress

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- Problem-focused Coping: reducing stress by overcoming the problem (more effective) - Emotion-focused Coping: manage the emotional turmoil

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Adaptive Coping

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successful in reducing negative emotions, do not have long-term costs

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Maladaptive Coping

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unsuccessful in reducing negative emotions and associated with long-term costs that outweigh the benefit of short-term reduction of negative emotions; associated with long term costs; Ex: drinking alcohol helps at the moment, not long term w/alcoholism

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Problem-focused Coping Strategies

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- Situation selection: approach or avoid certain people, places, or objects (AVOID OR APPROACH SITUATION) (Ex: meth-head doesn't go to taco bell which triggers addiction) - Situation modification: active efforts to directly modify the situation so as to alter it's emotional impact (WANT TO CHANGE SITUATION) (Ex: sleepy roommate askes to turn off the lights)

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Emotion-focused Coping Strategies

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- Positive Reappraisal: create a positive meaning for the event (in terms of personal growth) (Seeing silver lining) - Seeking Social Support: soliciting advice, emotional support, or instrumental support from another person (can be adaptive or maladaptive) - Rumination: Constantly thinking about thoughts and feelings associated with a negative event (try to avoid) - Thought Suppression: doesn't work, you still think about it

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History of Psychological Disorders and Treatment

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Stone Age: work of evil spirits, exorcisms, trephination (cut hold in skull) Ancient Egypt/Greece/Rome: wandering uterus (hysteria), strong-smelling substances to drive uterus back to proper place Middle Ages: witchcraft, exorcisms, torture, burning at the stake, lunacy trials Renaissance: asylums, (overcrowded, filthy, virtual prisons, cruelty) Early 20th Century: mental illness is a result of something wrong within you, Lobotomy, Insulin therapy, wet packs (cruel ; ineffective)

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Current Trends in Mental Health Care

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- Over-medication - Deinstitutionalization: releasing patients from public mental hospitals --> end up in our prisons or on the streets

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4 Major Paradigms to Psychopathology

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- Medical (Biological) - Behavioral - Cognitive - Sociocultural

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The Biological (Medical) Model

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- caused by biological conditions - can be treated through medical intervention • brain anatomy • brain chemistry • genetic abnormalities • evolution Treatment: drugs, electroconvulsive therapy, neuro/psycho-surgery

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Behavioral Models

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- caused by learned, maladaptive behaviors • classical conditioning - learning by temporal association • operant conditioning (rewards ; consequences) shape certain behaviors • modeling - we learn by watching others Therapies: systematic desensitization, flooding, modeling

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Cognitive Models

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- caused by maladaptive thinking patterns - attentional biases - perceptual biases - memory biases - poor coping strategies treatments: cognitive therapy

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Sociocultural Model

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- cause best understood in light of social and cultural influences - societal labels and roles - family systems theory - gender, race, ethnicity, prejudice, and discrimination can influence rates of disorder and likelihood of seeking help Treatments: culture-sensisitve therapy, group therapy, self-help groups, family therapy, couple/martial therapy, community mental health treatment

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Eclectic Approaches

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Abnormality results form the interaction of genetic, biological, developmental, emotional, behavioral, cognitive, social, cultural, and societal influences treatment should be different bc everyone is different

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Diathesis-stress model

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- biological vulnerability + stressor = psychopathology - if you have a special genetic marker, you have a higher chance for depression- w/environmental stressors

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Phobias

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- persistent and unreasonable fears of particular objects, activities, or situations - immediate anxiety if exposed to that which one fears - recognition that fear is excessive or unreasonable - phobic people often AVOID it (maladaptive)

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Specific Phobia

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- Persistent fears of specific objects or situations 1. Animal Type 2. Natural Environment Type (heights, water) 3. Situational Type (Public transportation, tunnels, bridges, elevators) 4. Blood-injection-injury Type 5. Other Type (fear of choking, vomiting, space, death, costumed characters)

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Social Anxiety Disorder (Social Phobia)

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- Marked fear or anxiety about one or more social situations in which the individual is exposed to possible scrutiny by others - Social Interactions - Being Observed - Performing in front of others (Fear of these situations because of fear of being scrutinized)

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Agoraphobia

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- Marked fear or anxiety about two or more of the following five situations 1. Using public transportation 2. Being in open spaces 3. Being in enclosed places 4. Standing in line or being in a crowd 5. Being outside of the home alone - BECAUSE escape might be difficult (or help might not be available)

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Panic Disorder

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- Recurrent, unexpected Panic Attacks • Racing heart, trembling, chest pain, dizziness, etc - Persistent worry about additional panic attacks - A significant maladaptive change in behavior related to the attacks - there's usually a trigger

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Generalized Anxiety Disorder

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- Excessive anxiety and worry about a number of events or activities - The individual finds it difficult to control the worry - restless, fatigued, unfocused, irritable, muscle tension, sleep difficulty - Feel anxiety ALL THE TIME - Strips you of ability to enjoy life

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Empirically-Based Treatments for Anxiety Disorders

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- Cognitive Behavioral Therapy • exposure therapy (systematic desensitization-slow process, flooding-fast) - Cognitive Therapy • Rational-emotive; Psycho-education; Mindfulness; Metacognitive - Group Therapy - Biofeedback (useful for learning relaxation techniques) - Medication (antidepressants- take daily, benzodiazepines - highly addictive, don't take daily)

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Major Depressive Disorder

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- Marked by 5 or more symptoms lasting two or more weeks 1. Depressed mood 2. Anhedonia (loss of pleasure in activities) 3. Weight/appetite changes 4. Insomnia/hypersomnia 5. Psychomotor agitation/retardation 6. fatigue or loss of energy 7. worthlessness/guilt 8. trouble concentrating 9. recurrent thoughts of suicide/death, parasuicidal behavior

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Major Depressive Disorder - Some Additional Specifiers

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1. Anxious distress - presence of at least 2 prominent anxiety symptoms occurring most days 2. Melancholic - extreme anhedonia 3. Psychotic features - hallucinations/delusions are present 4. Catatonic - immobility or excessive activity 5. Seasonal - onset consistently coincides with particular time of year 6. Peripartum onset- symptoms occur during pregnancy or within four weeks of giving birth

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Serotonin and Nonrepinephrine

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Want to increase these for depressed people

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Schizophrenia

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Involves significant distortions of thoughts and perceptions and a loss of contact with reality (psychosis) too much dopamine

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3 Phases of Schizophrenia

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• Prodromal - beginning of deterioration; mild symptoms (hard to know-are they just odd or not?) • Active - symptoms become increasingly apparent (no mistaking it) • Residual - a return to prodromal levels

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Positive Symptoms - Delusions

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- Presence of something - Delusions • of Persecution (everyone is out to get you) • of reference (everything is about her) • of grandeur (importance) • of control

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Positive Symptoms - Disordered thinking and speech

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- loose associations/derailment (nothing is related) - neologisms - perseverations (saying things over again) - clang (trying to rhyme)

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Positive Symptoms - Hallucinations

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- faulty sensory perceptions • Auditory • Visual • Tactile (touch) • Gustatory (taste) • Olfactory (smell) • Somatic ("snakes in stomach, spiders in veins")

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Positive Symptoms - Inappropriate Affect

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- emotions that are unsuited to the situation • laughing at people falling • giggling at funeral • being lustful in waffle house - schizophrenic people don't think it's inappropriate

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Negative Symptoms

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- absence or taken away • Poverty of speech (alogia) • Blunted and flat affect • Avolition (lack of drive/motivation) • Social withdrawal

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Type I and Type II

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Type I: Mostly positive symptoms (easier to treat w/drugs) Type II: Mostly negative symptoms - Theory: Negative symptoms are the background against which positive symptoms periodically emerge (negative symptoms are the backdrop)

Psych 1 Exam 3 (UCSC)

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