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Wildlife

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Free ranging, non fish vertebrates

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3 Aspects of Wildlife Management

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Human dimension, animals, and habitats

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Active Wildlife Management

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Change population numbers directly: harvest (hunting or trapping) or translocations Change population numbers indirectly: food supply, change habitat composition, density of predators

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Passive Wildlife Management

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Preservation, minimize external influences on wildlife and habitat, let natural processes take place - National Park Service

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4 Goals of Wildlife Management

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1. Population Increase - endangered species 2. Population Decrease - damage problems: deer, beaver, coyote 3. Harvest for Continuing Yield - game species 4. Leave it Alone - monitor status

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Era of Abundance

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Local populations generally declined with settlement, wildlife treated as though always plentiful, local exterminations not a concern.

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Earliest record of wildlife mgmt.

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Massachusetts Bay Colony established a bounty for large predators, wolves. Try to reduce their numbers.

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Portsmouth Rhode Is. Colony

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First closed hunting season on deer in

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Aldo Leopold

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"Game Management" signaled birth of professional wildlife conservation

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Era of Exploitation

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First game wardens established in Maine New York became first state to require hunting licenses First daily bag limits imposed in Iowa on prairie chickens

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Era of Protection

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John Muir: Sierra Club -- 1892 George Bird Grinnell, Teddy Roosevelt: Boone and Crockett Club -- 1887

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Lacey Act

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decreased market hunting by making interstate transportation of illegally killed game a federal offense

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Pelican Island, FL

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first federal wildlife refuge

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Weeks-McLean Act

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Federal control over migratory birds & ended spring waterfowl hunting

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Migratory Bird Treaty Act

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established cooperation between Canada and US for management of migratory birds

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Era of Game Management

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(1930-1965)

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Duck Stamp Act

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all waterfowl hunters had to purchase and proceeds purchased wetland habitats

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Pittman-Robertson Act

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(P-R Act or Federal Aid in Wildlife Restoration Act) - perhaps most important event in this era; 11% excise tax on sporting arms & ammunition; funds given back to states on matching basis (3:1) for wildlife research & restoration P-R Act: Has generated > $2 billion for wildlife conservation since it started

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Era of Environmental Management

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Emphasis not just on game species Biodiversity Ecosystem management Science-based management Nongame & endangered species

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Endangered Species Act

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Authorized Secretary of Interior to keep a list of rare and endangered species; initially gave no legal protection or federal aid, but started a commitment

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National Environmental Policy Act

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established Council of Environmental Quality; required Environmental Impact Statements (EIS) for federally-assisted projects likely to have environmental effects

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Environmental Protection Agency

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State wildlife agencies broadened their programs to include more than "game" species

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Funding of Wildlife Conservation

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Funding can be divided into traditional, non-traditional, and federal aid sources

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Traditional Funding

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About 70% of funding received by state wildlife agencies comes from traditional sources a) Licenses and permits: used by all states b) Legislative appropriations: General Fund, collected from every citizen; only used by about 2/3's of states. Alabama receives no General Fund monies

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Federal Aid

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About 20% of state agency funding comes from federal aid sources All states receive federal aid Pittman-Robertson Dingell-Johnson: similar tax on fishing gear

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Non-Traditional Funding

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Taxes on commodities, property taxes, income tax check-offs Only about 10% of state income comes from non-traditional sources, but there are exceptions TX: tax on tobacco MO: 1/8 of 1% sales tax; generates $100 million/yr LA: oil & gas tax Only about ½ the states have non-traditional income

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Conservation and Reinvestment Act (CARA)

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proposed funding Money from oil & gas leases, > 6 miles offshore Traditionally place in the Federal Treasury Amounted to $4.6 billion in 2000 Proposal is to take 50% of this revenue and give it back to the states to fund various programs One program is Title III: Wildlife Conservation & Restoration: about $350-450 million/yr Did not pass Congress

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US Army Corps of Engineers

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For years, COE has been in the business of destroying bottomland habitats and creating flood control projects Projects were justified with a benefit:cost analysis Benefits > costs to justify the project (1.4:1.0) Early analysis, the costs of losing valuable wildlife habitat were not often considered

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Mitigation

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"Compensate the impact by replacing or substituting resources" In mitigation, economic units are not dollars but habitat units

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Habitat Evaluation Procedures (HEP)

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used by the US Fish & Wildlife Service to calculate habitat units

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Total Benefit Value or Maximum Willingness to Pay

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the difference between the max. amount a consumer would pay and the amount they actually pay for the commodity.

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Direct Expenditures

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Estimate amount spent on wildlife-related activities. Value of wildlife is equivalent to the total spent.

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Soil Texture

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(amounts of sand, silt and clay) Indirect: through effects on vegetation and plant communities Direct: burrowing animals; many associated with soils having low clay & high sand content

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Soil Chemistry

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pH and nutrients. Help to increase carrying capacity

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Macronutrients

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Nitrogen (N), Phosphorous (P) & Potassium (K)

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Micronutrients

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Copper, Zinc, Iron, Calcium

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Soil Bank Program

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29 million acres enrolled. Retired land from production and required the land to be given adequate cover to reduce soil erosion.

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Conservation Reserve Program

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Established by the Food Security Act of 1985 Later, as part of the various Farm Bills Provides payments to farmers who stop ag. production and establish cover crop (perennial grasses or trees); usually enrolled for a period of 10 years

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Purpose of CRP

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Control supply of agric. commodities Reduce soil erosion; saves 450 million tons of soil each year Wildlife conservation; now one of the primary purposes and benefits

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Integrated Pest Management (IPM)

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Use a combination of chemical, cultural and biological methods Reduce amount and frequency of insecticide application Genetic engineering: insect resistant crops Species specific diseases and parasites that target specific pests

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Prescribed fires

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used to manage vegetation succession & releases nutrients taken up by plants

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Wetland management

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drawdown water to encourage growth of preferred duck foods and expose mudflats for wetland birds

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Food plots

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planting small areas to various plant species (clovers, wheat, various grains etc.)

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Selective feeding

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Animals are able to select plant parts and foods with higher nutrient content Ruffed Grouse: select tree buds with higher protein content Geese: use grasses with greater protein Food use also may change seasonally

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Good food habits studies measure

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1) availability of foods, and 2) breeding status of the animals

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Effects of nutrition

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Reproduction: Timing of reproduction Probability of reproducing Frequency of reproduction Number and size of offspring produced by females Growth & development of young: Slower growth Early effects are long-lasting Small adult body size influences reproduction Survival of young

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Foregut fermenters

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ruminants (4 chambered stomach): bovids (cattle, sheep, antelope); cervids (deer)

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Factors involved in habitat selection

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Genetic: inherited or innate patterns Learning: from parents or social group Competition: population density; dominance status

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Foraging Efficiency & Group Living

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Decreased vigilance Overcome prey defenses (social predators like wolves and lions) Gain information

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Acquisition

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decisions and tradeoffs

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Maintenance

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conservation

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Population Dynamics

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study of changes in numbers of individuals in a population and the factors influencing those changes.

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Wildlife Population Ecology

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Application of principles of population ecology to conserve, restore, manage or control non-domesticated vertebrate species

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Diagrammatic Life Table

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Method of visualizing important population parameters

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Cohort or dynamic life table

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data are collected by following a cohort throughout its life.

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Cohort

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a group of individuals all born during the same time interval (same age).

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Time-specific or static life table

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age structure of population is estimated at one point in time.

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Time Specific Life Table Assumptions

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Birth and death rates are constant Population size and age structure are the same from year to year

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Model Assumptions:

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Population is closed, b and d are constant; unlimited food, space, etc., no age or size structure; no differences in b & d among individuals, and growth is continuous

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Logistic Growth: model assumptions

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Population is closed No age or size structure; no differences in b & d among individuals Constant K: resource availability does not vary through time Linear density dependence: every individual add to N causes a decrease in the per capita rate of growth (r)

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Heterogeneity

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one segment of the population has a greater chance of being captured than another (e.g., age, sex, social status, physical condition)

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Trap Response

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capture probability depends on the animal's prior history of capture

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Population Closure

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shorten the time between sample periods

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Hydrophyte

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water loving plant

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Hydric Soils

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usually saturated with water for a period of the year and having low oxygen.

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North American Waterfowl Management Plan (NAWMP)

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manage and preserve wetlands to maintain viable waterfowl populations at population levels observed in 1970's

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Joint ventures

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partnerships between state, federal, and private organizations to purchase and restore wetlands

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Exploitation

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each individual takes part of the resources, leaving less for others

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Interference

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more a matter of direct interaction, defense of food, mates, or space

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Extrinsic

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involves interactions with rest of the community

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