Political Philosophy and Plato Essay Example

Justice. It was foremost described by Plato in the Socratic Dialogues. To work out a job. it would be broken down into a series of inquiries. the replies to which bit by bit distill the reply an individual would seek.

The influence of this attack is most strongly felt today in the usage of the scientific method. in which hypothesis is the first phase. The development and pattern of this method is one of Socrates’ most abiding parts. and is a cardinal factor in gaining his mantle as the male parent of political doctrine. moralss or moral doctrine. and as a front man of all the cardinal subjects in Western doctrine. To exemplify the usage of the Socratic method ; a series of inquiries are posed to assist a individual or group to find their implicit in beliefs and the extent of their cognition.

The Socratic method is a negative method of hypothesis riddance. in that better hypotheses are found by steadily placing and extinguishing those that lead to contradictions. It was designed to coerce one to analyze one’s ain beliefs and the cogency of such beliefs. In fact. Socrates one time said. “I know you won’t believe me. but the highest signifier of Human Excellence is to oppugn oneself and others. ” Philosophical beliefs The beliefs of Socrates. as distinguishable from those of Plato. are hard to spot. Little in the manner of concrete grounds exists to demarcate the two.

The drawn-out theories given in most of the duologues are those of Plato. and some bookmen think Plato so adapted the Socratic manner as to do the literary character and the philosopher himself impossible to separate. Others

argue that he did hold his ain theories and beliefs. but there is much contention over what these might hold been. owing to the trouble of dividing Socrates from Plato and the trouble of construing even the dramatic Hagiographas referring Socrates. Consequently. separating the philosophical beliefs of Socrates from those of Plato and Xenophon is noneasy and it must be remembered that what is attributed to Socrates might more closely reflect the specific concerns of these minds. The affair is complicated because the historical Socrates seems to hold been ill-famed for inquiring inquiries but nonreplying. claiming to miss wisdom regarding the topics about which he questioned others. Socratic Paradoxes Many of the beliefs traditionally attributed to the historical Socrates have been characterized as “paradoxal” because they seem to conflict with common sense.

The undermentioned are among the alleged Socratic Paradoxes

• No one desires evil.
• No one errs or does incorrectly volitionally or wittingly.
• Virtue—all virtue—is cognition
• Virtue is sufficient for felicity.

The phrase Socratic paradox can besides mentioned to a self-referential paradox. arising in Socrates’ phrase. “I know that I know nil baronial and good”. Knowledge One of the best-known expressions of Socrates is “I merely know that I know nothing” . The conventional reading of this comment is that Socrates’ wisdom was limited to a consciousness of his ain ignorance. Socrates believed error was an effect of ignorance and those who did incorrect knew no better.

The one thing Socrates systematically claimed to hold cognition of was “the art of love” . which he connected with the construct of “the love of wisdom” . i. e. . doctrine. He ne'er really claimed to be wise. merely to

understand the way a lover of wisdom must take in prosecuting it. It is problematic whether Socrates believed worlds ( as opposed to Gods like Apollo ) could really go wise. On the one manus. he drew a clear line between human ignorance and ideal cognition ; on the other. Plato’s Symposium ( Diotima’s Speech ) and Republic ( Allegory of the Cave ) describe a method for go uping to wisdom.

In Plato’s Theaetetus ( 150a )

Socrates compares himself to a true matcher ( promnestikos ) as distinguished from a pimp ( proagogos ). This differentiation is echoed in Xenophon’s Symposium ( 3. 20 ). when Socrates jokes about his certainty of being able to do a luck. if he chose to pattern the art of pandering.

For his portion as a philosophical middleman. he leads his respondent to a clearer construct of wisdom. although he claims he is non himself an instructor ( Apology ) . His function. he claims. is more properly to be understood as correspondent to an accoucheuse (  Maja ) . Socrates explains that he is himself a waste of theories. but knows how to convey the theories of others to deliver and find whether they are worthy or mere “wind eggs” ( anemia ) .

Possibly significantly he points out that accoucheuses are wastes due to age. and adult females who have ne'er given birth are unable to go accoucheuses; they would hold no experience or cognition of birth and would be unable to divide the worthy babies from those that should be left on the hillside to be exposed. To judge this. the accoucheuse must hold experience and cognition of

what she is judging. Virtue Bust of Socrates in the Palermo Archaeological Museum. Socrates believed the best manner for people to populate was to concentrate on self-development instead of the chase of stuff wealth. He ever invited others to seek to concentrate more on friendly relationships and a sense of true community for Socrates felt this was the best manner for people to turn together as a public. His actions lived up to this: in the terminal. Socrates accepted his decease sentence when most thought he would merely go forth to Athens. as he felt he could non-runoff from or travel against the will of his community as mentioned above. his repute for heroism on the battleground was without reproach. The thought that worlds possessed certain virtuousness formed a common yarn in Socrates’ instructions.

This virtuousness represented the most of import qualities for an individual to hold. foremost of which were the philosophical or rational virtuousness. Socrates stressed that “virtue was the most valuable of all ownerships the ideal life was spent in hunt of the Good. The truth lies beneath the shadows of being. and it is the occupation of the philosopher to demo the remainder of how small they truly know.

Politics

It is frequently argued that Socrates believed “ideals belong in a universe merely the wise adult male can understand”  doing the philosopher the lone type of individually suited to regulate others. In Plato’s dialogue the Republic. Socrates was in no manner subtle about his peculiar beliefs on authorities.

He openly objected to the democracy that ran Athens during his grownup life. It was non merely Athenian democracy: Socrates objected to any signifier of authorities that

did non conform to his ideal of a perfect democracy led by philosophers and Athenian authorities were far from that. It is. nevertheless. possible that the Socrates of Plato’s Republic is colored by Plato’s ain positions. During the last old ages of Socrates’ life. Athens was in continual flux due to political turbulence. Democracy was at last overthrown by a junta known as the Thirty Tyrants. led by Plato’s relation. Critias. who had been a pupil of Socrates.

The Tyrants ruled for about a twelvemonth before the Athenian democracy was reinstated at which point it declared an amnesty for all recent events. Socrates’ resistance to democracy is frequently denied. and the inquiry is one of the biggest philosophical arguments when seeking to find precisely what Socrates believed. The strongest statement of those who claim Socrates did non really believe in the thought of philosopher male monarchs is that the position is expressed no earlier than Plato’s Republic which is widely considered one of Plato’s “Middle” duologues and nonrepresentative of the historical Socrates’ positions.

Furthermore harmonizing to Plato’s Apology of Socrates. an “early” duologue Socrates refused to prosecute conventional political relations he frequently stated he could non look into other’s affairs or state people how to populate their lives when he did not yet understand how to populate his ain. He believed he was a philosopher engaged in the chase of Truth. and did non claim to cognize it to the full. Socrates’ credence of his decease sentence. after his strong belief by the Boule ( Senate ) . can besides be seen to back up this position.

It is frequently claimed much of the anti-democratic propensities are from

Plato. who was ne'er able to get the better of his disgust at what was done to his instructor. In any instance. it is clear Socrates thought the regulation of the Thirty Tyrants was at least every bit obnoxious as Democracy when called earlier them to help in the apprehension of a fellow Athenian. Socrates refused and narrowly escaped decease before the Tyrants were overthrown. He did nevertheless carry through his responsibility to function as Prytanis when a test of a group of Generals who presided over a black naval run were judged ; even so he maintained an sturdy attitude. being one of those who refused to continue in a mode non supported by the Torahs. despite intense force per unit area.

Judging by his actions. he considered the regulation of the Thirty Tyrants less legitimate than the Democratic Senate that sentenced him to decease.

Contributions of Socrates

1.  Awakened minds to the demand to analyze and review their political. moral. and philosophical positions in order to detect and root out mistakes and misconceptions that impede advancement. Socrates accomplished this undertaking by showing. through cross-examination of people he encountered. that many accepted principles. conventions. and beliefs were based on defective logic or straight-out mistakes. A citation attributed to him provinces: “The unexamined life is non-deserving life ” In other words. a human being must non be self-satisfied and smug alternatively. he must be of all time examining. researching. and scouting his psyche in order to detect ways to better.
2. Efficaciously rebutted a cardinal dogma of the Sophists. going instructors who charged fees for educating immature work forces. This dogma maintained that the steering rules of a society.
   

such as justness and truth. were comparative concepts–that is. they changed harmonizing to the demands of work forces in a peculiar clip and topographic point. What was considered right and merely in Athens was non needfully right and merely in another society. the Sophists maintained. One man’s virtuousness could be another man’s frailty.

The test of Socrates

The Trial of Socrates refers to the test and the subsequent executing of the classical Athenian philosopher Socrates in 399 BC. Socrates was tried on the footing of two notoriously equivocal charges: perverting the young person and impiousness. More specifically. Socrates’ accusers cited two

“impious” Acts of the Apostles: “failing to admit the Gods that the metropolis acknowledges” and “introducing new divinities. ” A bulk of the 501 disasters ( Athenian citizens chosen by batch to function as jurymen) voted to convict him. Consistent with a common pattern. the disasters determined Socrates’ penalty with another ballot. Socrates was finally sentenced to decease by imbibing a hemlock-based liquid.

The accuser Meletus swore before the Archon. a province office-holder with chiefly spiritual responsibilities. Having decided that there was a instance to reply. the Archon summoned Socrates to look before a jury of Athenian citizens. to reply charges of perverting the young person of Athens and impiousness. Athenian juries were drawn by lottery from a group of male citizen voluntaries. Unlike tests in many modern societies. bulk finding of facts were the regulation instead than the exclusion.

Neither Plato nor Xenophon mentions the figure of Socrates’ Judgess. though Plato’s Apology 35a-b does propose some definite boundaries: that if merely 30 of the ballots had been otherwise so he would hold been acquitted. and that ( possibly ) less than three fifths voted against him After the ballot on Socrates’ guilt. Socrates and his prosecuting officer suggested alternate sentences. Socrates. after showing his surprise of the small sum he needed to be hold been found guiltless. jestingly suggested free repasts at the Prytaneum. a peculiar award held for metropolis helpers and victors at the Olympic Games. so offered to pay a mulct of 100 dram. which was a fifth of his belongings and a testament to Socrates’ poorness.

Finally he settled on the amount of 3000 dram. set frontward by Plato. Crito. Critobulus. and Apollodorus. who

guaranteed the payment. His prosecuting officer proposed the decease punishment. The jury voted for decease as the punishment – the larger bulk screening ( Diogenes Laertius 2. 42 ) . Possibly Socrates had lost support by his slighting and unapologetic tone. Socrates’s followings encouraged him to fly. and citizens expected him to make so and were likely non averse to it ; but he refused on rule. Apparently in conformity with his doctrine of obeisance to jurisprudence. he carried out his ain executing. by imbibing the hemlock provided to him.

Socrates died at the age of 70. Most bookmans see the strong belief and executing of Socrates as a deliberate pick made by the celebrated philosopher himself. If the histories of Plato and Xenophon are moderately accurate. Socrates sought non to carry jurymans. but instead to talk and arouse them. The test and executing of Socrates produced the first sufferer for free address. PLATO Plato 428/427 BC – 348/347 BC ) . was a Classical Hellenic philosopher. mathematician. pupil of Socrates. author of philosophical duologues. and laminitis of the Academy in Athens. the first establishment of higher acquisition in the Western universe.

Along with his wise man. Socrates. and his pupil. Aristotle. Plato helped to put the foundations of Western doctrine and scientific discipline. In the celebrated words of A. N. Whitehead: The safest general word picture of the European philosophical tradition is that it consists of a series of footers to Plato. I do non intend the systematic strategy of idea which bookmans have dubiously extracted from his Hagiographas. I allude to the wealth of general thoughts scattered through them. Plato’s edification as a author is

apparent in his Socratic duologues ; 36 duologues and 13 letters have been ascribed to him. Plato’s Hagiographas have been published in several manners ; this has led to several conventions sing the naming and referencing of Plato’s texts.

Plato’s duologues have been used to learn a scope of topics. including doctrine. logic. moralss. rhetoric. and mathematics Plato’s philosophical positions had many social deductions. particularly on the thought of an ideal province or authorities. There is some disagreement between his early and ulterior positions. Some of the most celebrated philosophies are contained in the Republic during his in-between period. every bit good as in the Laws and the Statesman. However. because Plato wrote duologues. it is assumed that Socrates is frequently talking for Plato.

This premise may non be true in all instances. Plato through the words of Socrates. asserts that societies have a three-party category construction matching to the appetite/spirit/reason construction of the single psyche. The appetite/spirit/reason stand for different parts of the organic structure.

The organic structure parts symbolize the castes of society :

• Productive which represents the venters. ( Workers ) — the laborers. carpenters. pipe fitters. Masons. merchandisers. husbandmans. ranchers. etc. These correspond to the “appetite” portion of the psyche.
• Protective which represents the thorax. ( Warriors or Guardians ) — those who are adventuresome. strong and brave in the armed forces. These correspond to the “spirit” portion of the psyche.
• Governing represents the caput. ( Rulers or Philosopher Kings ) — those who are intelligent. rational. self-controlled. in love with wisdom. good suited to do determinations for the community. These correspond to the “reason” portion of the psyche and are really few. Harmonizing
  

to this theoretical account. the rules of Athenian democracy ( as it existed in his twenty-four hours ) are rejected as merely a few are fit to govern. Alternatively of rhetoric and persuasion. Plato says ground and wisdom should regulate.

As Plato puts it

“Until philosophers rule as male monarchs or those who are now called male monarchs and taking workforces truly and adequately philosophise. that is. until political power and doctrine wholly coincide. while the many natures who at present pursue either one entirely are forcibly prevented from making so. metropolis will hold no remainder from immoralities. … nor. I think will the human race. ” ( Republic 473c-d ) Plato describes these “philosopher kings” as “those who love the sight of truth” ( Republic 475c ) and supports the thought with the analogy of a captain and his ship or a physician and his medical specialty.

Harmonizing to hi. sailing and wellness are non things that everyone is qualified to pattern by nature. A big portion of the Republic so addresses how the educational system should be set up to bring forth these philosopher male monarchs. However. it must be taken into history that the ideal metropolis outlined in the Republic is qualified by Socrates as the ideal epicurean metropolis. examined to find how it is that unfairness and justness grow in a metropolis ( Republic 372e ) .

Harmonizing to Socrates. the “true” and “healthy” metropolis is alternatively the one first outlined in book II of the Republic. 369c–372d. incorporating husbandmans. craftsmen. merchandisers. and wage-earners. but missing the guardian category of philosopher-kings every bit good as daintiness such as “perfumed oils. incense. cocotte. and pastries” .

in add-on to pictures. gold. tusk. sofas. a battalion of businesss such as poets and huntsmans. and war. In add-on. the ideal metropolis is used as an image to light the province of one’s psyche. or the will. ground. and desires combined in the human organic structure. Socrates is trying to do an image of a justly ordered homo. and so subsequently goes on to depict the different sorts of worlds that can be observed. from autocrats to lovers of money in assorted sorts of the metropolis.

The ideal metropolis is non promoted. but merely used to amplify the different sorts of single worlds and the province of their psyche. However. the philosopher male monarch image was used by many after Plato to warrant their personal political beliefs. The philosophic psyche harmonizing to Socrates has ground. will. and desires united in virtuous harmoniousness. A philosopher has a moderate love for wisdom and the bravery to move to harmonize to wisdom. Wisdom is knowledge about the Good or the right dealingss between all that exists. Wherein it concerns provinces and swayers. Plato has made interesting statements.

In case he asks which is better—a bad democracy or a state reigned by an autocrat. He argues that it is better to be ruled by a bad autocrat. then be a bad democracy ( since here all the people are now responsible for such actions. instead of one single perpetrating many bad deeds. ) This is emphasized within the Republic as Plato describes the event of mutiny on board a ship. Plato suggests the ship's crew be in line with the democratic regulation of many and the captain. although inhibited through

complaints. the autocrat.

Plato’s description of this event is parallel to that of democracy within the province and the built-in jobs that arise. Harmonizing to Plato. a province made up of different sorts of psyches will. overall. diminution from a nobility ( regulation by the best ) to a timocracy ( regulation by the honest ) . so to an oligarchy ( regulation by the few ) . so to a democracy ( regulation by the people ) . and eventually to tyranny ( regulation by one individual. regulation by an autocrat ).

Plato went on to analyze with Socrates

He learned to ground an argument through Socrates. Plato was really near to him. and when he watched Socrates’ test and slaying in 399 BC. it disillusioned him greatly.

He no longer trusted the authorities of Greece so he decided to open a school in Athens alternatively of traveling into political relations like everyone in his household had. Plato’s school for philosophers was started so that he could develop those who would some twenty-four hours be his leaders of metropolis. His most celebrated pupil was Aristotle who subsequently tutored Alexander the Great. Plato promoted thoughts that would finally consequence even Thomas Aquinas who changed the Catholic Doctrine to do it conform to the plants of Aristotle. Plato’s thoughts have greatly influenced the thought of modern authoritiess such as in the initiation of the American system.

For illustration. Plato stated. “Unless philosophers bear kingly regulation in metropolis or those who are now called male monarchs and princes become echt and equal philosophers. and political power and doctrine are brought together. . . there will be no reprieve from immorality for the

metropolis. ”  Plato and “The monetary value good work forces pay for indifference to public personal businesss is to be ruled by evil workforces. ” From these first democratic societies of the Greeks. Plato’s instruction has non necessarily been proven over clip. The political philosopher. Hilter. for illustration. was democratically elected by an intelligent public who were really concerned with public personal businesss. Plato’s ideas about perceptual experiences of world are still of involvement today.

One fable went something like this: Suppose a few workforces were captured when they were born. and made to populate in a cave. They are chained by their cervix and pess so that they can non travel at all. The workforces are confronting a wall of rock. Behind them burns a fire. In the forepart of that is a wall along which their capturers walk with marionettes in their custodies. The lone truth they know is that of what shadows look like and muffled sound repeating throughout the hall. They know non what a true boat looks like. merely the shadow of a boat. They make words for the objects they see. One twenty-four hours one of the workforces breaks free and gets out of the cave into the universe.

He sees the fire and the marionettes and knows that all he has known all his life was merely a piece of all he knew. He got to the out-of-doorss and was blinded by the Sun. He had to re-learn what the universe truly was like. He learned what true boats looked like and found that they were non at all like their shadows. He decided that his friends in the cave

should besides cognize that what they saw was non existent. but was merely an image dramatis personae from a hesitation fire. When he went down and told them. they laughed at him and told him he was incorrect. They said ‘Look! Can you non see the wall? That on the wall is a boat.

’ He persisted in his narrative of the visible radiation. and they finally killed him. This great analogy can use to what we know about celestial spheres. As it is written in Corinthians 13:12. “For now we see through a glass. darkly; but so face to face: now I know in portion ; but so shall I cognize even as besides I am known. ” Plato sensed that there was a world apart from his perceptual experience as many had sensed before him. The wisest adult male that of all time lived. Solomon. acknowledged in Ecclesiastes 1 that “there is nil new under the sun” . Indeed. centuries before Plato. it was recorded in Job 12:22. “He [ God ] reveals enigmas from the darkness and brings the deep darkness into light. “ The cryptic shadows of life can merely be brought to the visible radiation of understanding by God as explained by the Apostle in John 1:5 “And the light shineth in darkness ; and the darkness comprehended it non. ” And they killed what they didn’t understand as they were afraid of the world of their wickednesses and crucified the Light. Plato knew of this human fright factor. “We can easy forgive a kid who is afraid of the dark. The existent calamity of life is when work forces are

afraid of the visible radiation. ” –Plato Although Plato died in 347 BC. but his instruction continues to act upon authoritiess systems and even philosophies of the Roman Catholic Church.

Most philosophers from antiquity up to today hold stood on Plato’s wide shoulders trying to utilize what he offered and see beyond the cave’s shadows.

Aristotle

Aristotle ( B. 384 – d. 322 BCE ) . was a Grecian philosopher. logician. and scientist. Along with his instructor Plato. Aristotle is by and large regarded as one of the most influential antediluvian minds in a figure of philosophical Fieldss. including political theory. Aristotle was born in Stagira in northern Greece. and his male parent was a tribunal doctor to the male monarch of Macedon. As a immature adult male he studied in Plato’s Academy in Athens.

After Plato’s decease he left Athens to carry on philosophical and biological research in Asia Minor and Lesbos. and he was so invited by King Philip II of Macedon to tutor his immature boy. Alexander the Great. Soon after Alexander succeeded his male parent. consolidated the conquering of the Grecian city-states. and launched the invasion of the Persian Empire. Aristotle returned as a resident foreigner to Athens. and was a close friend of Antipater. the Macedonian vicereine. At this clip ( 335–323 BCE ) he wrote. or at least worked on. some of his major treatises. including the Politics. When Alexander died all of a sudden. Aristotle had to fly from Athens because of his Macedonian connexions. and he died shortly after.

Aristotle’s life seems to hold influenced his political idea in assorted ways: his involvement in biological science seems to be expressed in the

naturalism of his political relations his involvement in comparative political relations and his understandings for democracy every bit good as monarchy may hold been encouraged by his travels and experience of diverse political systems he criticizes harshly while borrowing extensively from Plato’s Republic. Statesman and Laws and his ain Politics is intended to steer swayers and solons reflecting the high political circles in which he moved.

Political Science in General

The modern word ‘political’ derives from the Grecian politics. ‘of. or referring to. the polis’ . ( The Greek term polis will be translated here as ‘city-state’ . It is besides translated as ‘city’ or ‘polis’ . or merely anglicized as ‘polis’. City states like Athens and Sparta were comparatively few and cohesive units. in which political. spiritual. and cultural concerns were intertwined. The extent of their similarity to modern nation-states is controversial. ) Aristotle’s word for ‘politics’ is politike which is short for politike episteme or ‘political science’ .

It belongs to one of the three chief subdivisions of scientific discipline. which Aristotle distinguishes by their terminals or objects. Brooding scientific discipline ( including natural philosophies and metaphysics ) is concerned with truth or cognition for its ain interest practical scientific discipline with good action and productive scientific discipline with doing utile or beautiful. Politics is a practical scientific discipline. since it is concerned with the baronial action or felicity of the citizens ( although it resembles a productive scientific discipline in that it seeks to make. continue. and reform political systems ) . Aristotle therefore understands political relations as a normative or normative subject instead than as a strictly empirical or descriptive enquiry.

In the Nicomachean Ethics

Aristotle describes his capable affair as political scientific discipline. which he characterizes as the most important scientific discipline. It prescribes which scientific disciplines are to be studied in the city state. and the others — such as military scientific discipline. family direction. and rhetoric — autumn under its authorization. Since it governs the other practical scientific disciplines. their terminals serve as agencies to its terminal. which is nil less than the human good. “Even if the terminal is the same for an person and for a city state. that of the city-state seems at any rate greater and more complete to achieve and continue.

For although it is worthy to achieve it for merely an person. it is baronial and more Godhead to make so for a state or city-state” ( EN I. 2. 1094b7-10 ) . Aristotle’s political scientific discipline encompasses the two Fieldss which modern philosophers distinguish as moralss and political doctrine. Political doctrine in the narrow sense is approximately talking the topic of his treatise called the Politics. For a farther treatment of this subject. see the undermentioned auxiliary papers:

 Aristotle’s View of Politics

Political scientific discipline surveies the undertakings of the politician or solon ( politikos ) . in much the manner that medical scientific discipline concerns the work of the doctor ( see Politics IV. 1 ) . It is. in fact. the organic structure of cognition that such practicians. if genuinely adept. will besides exert in prosecuting their undertakings. The most of import undertaking for the politician is. in the function of lawmaker. to border the appropriate fundamental law for the city state. This involves digesting Torahs. imposts. and establishments ( including

a system of moral instruction ) for the citizens.

Once the fundamental law is in topographic point. the politician needs to take the appropriate steps to keep it. to present reforms when he finds them necessary. and to forestall developments which might overthrow the political system. This is the state of legislative scientific discipline. which Aristotle respects as more of import than political relations as exercised in mundane political activity such as the passing of edicts. Aristotle often compares the politician to a craftsman.

The analogy is imprecise because political relations. in the rigorous sense of legislative scientific discipline. is a signifier of practical cognition. while a trade like architecture or medical specialty is a signifier of productive cognition. However. the comparing is valid to the extent that the politician produces. operates. maintains a legal system harmonizing to cosmopolitan rules ( EN VI. 8 and X. 9 ) .

In order to appreciate this analogy it is helpful to detect that Aristotle explains the production of an artefact in footings of four causes: the stuff. formal. efficient. and concluding causes ( Phys. II. 3 and Met. A. 2 ) . For illustration. clay ( material cause ) is molded into a vase form ( formal cause ) by a thrower ( efficient or traveling cause ) so that it can incorporate liquid ( concluding cause ) . One can besides explicate the being of the city-state in footings of the four causes. It is a sort of community. that is. an aggregation of parts holding some maps and involvements in common. Hence. it is made up of parts. which Aristotle describes in assorted.