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The early history of oceanography/marine science is closely related to the history of

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ocean exploration and voyaging

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First demonstration of ability and knowledge to navigate transoceanic voyages

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Polynesian migration in the Pacific Ocean

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are one of the four cultures that inhabited some 1,000 islands in the central and eastern Pacific.

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The Polynesians

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Polynesia is generally defined as the islands within the

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Polynesian triangle

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Geographically, Polynesia may be described as a triangle with its corners at

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Hawaii, New Zealand and Easter Island

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The term "Polynesia" means

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many islands

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Systematic study of the ocean began at the

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Library of Alexandria

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was founded in the third century B.C. became a repository of maritime records describing the Mediterranean coast

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The Library of Alexandria, in Egypt

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The principles of_________ were invented at the Library of Alexandria.

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celestial navigation

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was the second librarian at Alexandria.

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Eratosthenes of Cyrene

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He was the first to calculate the circumference of Earth. He also invented a system of longitude and latitude.

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Eratosthenes of Cyrene

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was a notable Greek sea adventurer

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Pytheas

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periodically raided various parts of Europe. By 1000 A. D. Colonized Vinland in Newfoundland (North America), though the colony was later abandoned.

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Vikings

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set out in the 1400s to explore the Indian Ocean, Indonesia, Africa and the Atlantic.

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Chinese navigators

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Chinese navigator's ships were laden with gifts designed to show China's _____ and ________.

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wealth and degree of civilization

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The Chinese invented:

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The central rudder, Water-tight compartments, Sails on multiple masts, and Magnetic compass

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The largest peacetime ocean exploration ever mounted which was made up of 7 voyages that lasted from 1405-1433

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Chinese Ocean Exploration

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controlled the trading route to Asia (silk, spices)

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Arabs

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from Venice, wrote a book (known in Italy as the "Book Million about miracles of the world") about his journey with his father and uncle to China via Silk Route (Great Silk Road)

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Marco Polo

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Established a center for seafaring in order to mount expeditions to open a new trading route to Asia

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Portugal's Prince Henry the Navigator

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reached India by sailing around the tip of Africa

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Vasco Da Gama

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explored the world by sea during the Renaissance

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Europeans

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Explorers under his patronage compiled detailed charts and explored the west coast of Africa.

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Henry the Navigator

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"discovered" the new world in 1492. Although in reality he never saw the mainland of North America, his stories inspired other explorers to follow.

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Christopher Columbus

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a Portuguese sailor

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Ferdinand Magellan

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the first voyage around the world

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The journey of the Magellan expedition

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Only ___ out of ______ sailors managed to return after three years of dangerous travel

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18 out of 260

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needed to find longitude at sea

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John Harrison's Chronometer

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you can find your location at sea with a ______ and _______

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magnetic compass and an accurate clock

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a commander in the British Royal Navy - his cruises are considered to be the first scientific ocean exploration and greatly contributed to scientific oceanography

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James Cook

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Some of the accomplishments of James Cook and his scientists include:

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• Initiation of friendly relations with many native populations • Sampling marine life, land plants and animals • Verification of calculations of planetary orbits • Charting of New Zealand and the Great Barrier Reef, Tonga and Easter Islands • Recording data concerning the ocean floor and geological formations

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The First Scientific Expeditions Were Undertaken by

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Governments

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launched in 1838 was a naval and scientific expedition

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The United States Exploring Expedition

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where Charles Darwin served as a naturalist, voyaged to South America and some Pacific Islands ("On the Origin of Species").

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The HMS Beagle

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expedition of 1872-1876 was the first oceanic expedition dedicated to scientific research. It was sponsored by Royal Society of London. It started Marine Biology

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HMS Challenger

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published the first map of the Gulf Stream (a swift current circulating clockwise in the North Atlantic Ocean) in 1770.

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Benjamin Franklin

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"Father of Physical oceanography"

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Mathew Fontaine Maury

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Organized the vast amount of data on wind, current and weather recorded in ships logbooks

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Mathew Fontaine Maury

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Earth rotates once in every____ hours

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24

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Sun rises from the _____ and sets in the _____

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east, west

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defined as the time the sun is exactly over your head

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Local noon time

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the four marine processes of oceanography are:

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geological, physical, chemical, and biological

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Earth's largest feature

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ocean

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_____% of the Earth is covered by water

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70.78

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also known as the "blue planet"

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Earth

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Every ____ m in depth corresponds to ____ kg/cm2 (14.22 pounds/in2) in pressure

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10, 1

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At the known deepest spot on the ocean bottom called ______ , pressure would be1.1ton/cm2 (7.82ton/in2)

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Mariana Trench

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Completes Record-Breaking Mariana Trench Dive, The first human to reach the 6.8-mile-deep (11-kilometer-deep) undersea valley solo

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James Cameron

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More than ____% of the water lies in the ocean. Of all water at Earth's surface

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97

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ice on land contains about _____%

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1.7

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groundwater ____%

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.8

question

rivers and lakes ____%,

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.007

question

the atmosphere _____%.

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0.001

question

How much percentage of the Earth's surface is covered by land?

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30%

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average depth of the world oceans

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3,796m or 12,451 ft.

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deepest spot in the world oceans

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Mariana Trench 11,022 m

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Highest spot on land

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Mt. Everest 8848m

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average temp for the world oceans

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3.9 degrees celcius

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average salinity is about ____%

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3.4

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age of the world oceans is about

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4 billion years

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what is the utilization of the ocean:

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-transportation -natural resources -high concentration of human population in coastal region -pollution -naval power

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Scientific study of the ocean

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oceanography

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a marine biologist who has to know currents to study movements of organisms.

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Highly interdisciplinary

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the study of the nature and distri- bution of marine organisms

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marine biology

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the study of Earth's crust and composition

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marine geology

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the study of the dissolved gases and solids in the ocean

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chemical oceanography

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the study of waves, currents, and climate prediction

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physical oceanography

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Ocean covers ____% of the earth's surface

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70.8

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only form over warm water

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hurricanes

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______ of water is much larger than that of land and air

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heat capacity

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atmosphere interaction in regulating the earth's weather and climate (versus land-atmosphere interaction)

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dominant role of ocean

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what drives the climate system?

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solar radiation

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result from a combination of tectonic activity and the processes of erosion and deposition.

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Seafloor features

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the ocean floor is mapped by____

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bathymetry

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The discovery and study of ocean floor contours is called

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Bathymetry

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How did early scientists study the ocean floor?

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Early bathymetric studies were often performed using a weighted line to measure the depth of the ocean floor

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advances in bathymetry include:

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-echo sounding -multibeam systems -satellite altimetry

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is a method of measuring seafloor depth using sound pulses. The accuracy can be affected by water conditions and bottom contours

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echo sounding

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can provide more accurate measurements than echo sounders do. Collect data from as many as 121 beams to measure the contours of the ocean floor

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multibeam systems

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can be used to map seabed contours

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satellites

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measures the sea surface height from orbit

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Satellite altimetry

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land covers ____% of the earth

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29.2

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is a plot of the area of the Earth's surface above any given elevation or depth above or below sea level

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A hypsographic curve

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Note that more than half of Earth's solid surface is at least_______ meters (10,000 feet) below sea level.

answer

3,000

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The average _____ of the ocean (3,790 meters) is much greater than the average ______ of the continents (840 meters).

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depth, elevation

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what are the two classifications of ocean floor?

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continental margins and ocean basin

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the submerged outer edge of a continent

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continental Margins

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the deep seafloor beyond the continental margin

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Ocean Basin

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has the steepest slope, and the abyssal plain is the flattest

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Continental slope

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what are the 2 types of continental margins?

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passive and active margins

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also called Atlantic-type margins, face the edges of diverging tectonic plates. Very little volcanic or earthquake activity

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Passive margins

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known as Pacific-type margins, are located near the edges of converging plates. - are the site of volcanic and earthquake activity

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Active margins

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the shallow,submerged edge of the continent.

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Continental shelf

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the transition between the continental shelf and the deep- ocean floor, has the steepest slope

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continental slopes

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the abrupt transition from continental shelf to the continental slope

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shelf break

question

accumulated sediment found at the base of the continental slope

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continental rises

question

are a feature of some continental margins. They cut into the continental shelf and slope, often terminating on the deep-sea floor in a fan-shaped wedge of sediment

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Submarine canyons

question

Avalanche-like sediment movement caused when turbulence mixes sediments into water above a sloping bottom are called

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turbidity current

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flow down submarine canyons and deposit sediments as deep-sea fans

answer

turbidity currents

question

are an underwater "avalanche" of sediments thought responsible for the sculpturing of submarine canyons and a means of sediment transport into abyssal plains.

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turbidity currents

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triggered the turbidity current that damaged underwater cables

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Grand Banks Earthquake

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what are some features of the deep-ocean floor?

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-oceanic ridges -hydrothermal vents -abyssal plains and abyssal hills -seamounts and guyots -trenches and Island Arcs

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is a mountainous chain of young, basaltic rock at an active spreading center of an ocean

answer

oceanic ridge

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are fractures along which lithospheric plates slide horizontally past one another. -Are the active part of fracture zones.

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Transform faults

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are sites where superheated water containing dissolved minerals and gases escapes through fissures, or vents

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Hydrothermal vents

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are volcanic projections from the ocean floor that do not rise above sea level.

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Seamounts

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Flat-topped seamounts eroded by wave action are called

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guyots

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are flat areas of sediment-covered ocean floor found between the continental margins and oceanic ridges.

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Abyssal hills

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are small, extinct volcanoes or rock intrusions near the oceanic ridges

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Abyssal hills

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are arc-shaped depressions in the ocean floor caused by the subduction of a converging ocean plate

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Trenches

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is the term used to describe the beginning of the universe, probably about 14 billion years ago. As the universe expanded, it cooled, eventually allowing the formation of atoms, which then formed galaxies and stars

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The Big Bang

question

What do stars have to do with the ocean?

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Most of the substance of Earth, its ocean, and all living things, was formed by stars. Every chemical element heavier than hydrogen was manufactured and released into space by stars.

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Our sun, like all normal stars, is powered by

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nuclear fusion

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formation of the planets of the solar system was about

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4.6 billion years ago

question

is a key concept for understanding the structure of Earth and measures the mass per unit volume of a substance

answer

density

question

something that is small but heavy is considered to have ____

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high density

question

something that is light for its size has _____

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low density

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things that have density will _____, while things with low density will ______

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sink, float

question

is a major source of the Earth's ocean and atmosphere

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Volcanic activity

question

process releases water into Earth's surface.

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Outgassing

question

may have delivered some of Earth's surface water

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Comets

question

Intense bombardment of the early Earth by large bodies - comets and asteroids - probably lasted until about ____billion years ago.

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3.8

question

Single-cell plant organisms use ______

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photosynthesis

question

Bacteria in the absence of sunlight, using chemical compounds such as ammonia, methane, hydrogen sulfide to produce food (carbon dioxide fixation) this is called

answer

chemosynthesis

question

How long can Earth exist?

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our sun will begin to die in 5 billion years -6 billion years from now the sun will enter the red giant phase and ingulf the inner planets

question

where have scientists found evidence of water?

answer

-europa -mars -titan

question

Saturn's largest moon, may have an ocean of hydrocarbons

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titan

question

is thought to consist mainly of silicon, oxygen, iron, and magnesium

answer

mantle

question

consist mainly of iron and nickel

answer

the outer and inner core

question

which layer is least dense?

answer

lithosphere

question

granitic, less dense, thicker and older

answer

Continental crust:

question

basaltic, denser, thinner and younger

answer

Oceanic crust:

question

A cool, rigid, less dense layer the _____ floats on a hot, slowly-flowing, more dense layer the _________

answer

lithosphere, asthenosphere

question

is the ability of an object to float in a fluid by displacing a volume of that fluid equal in weight to the floating object's own weight.

answer

Buoyancy

question

proposed ContinentalDrift (1915). He could not explain the source of energy to move continents.

answer

Alfred Wegener

question

proposed Seafloor Spreading

answer

Harry Hess

question

published "The origin of continents and oceans" and proposed the Continental Drift theory

answer

Wegener

question

-Shape of shorelines -Mountains -Fossil records -characteristic features left by ancient glaciers explained by the supercontinent called ______

answer

Pangaea

question

revealed a pattern of volcanoes and earthquakes.

answer

Seismographs

question

of rocks revealed a surprisingly young oceanic crust.

answer

Radiometric dating

question

revealed the shape of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge and sense the contour of the seafloor

answer

Echo sounders

question

Echo sounders were first used on the ______ in 1925 in the South Atlantic

answer

German Meteor Expedition

question

Age of various rocks can be dated by measuring _______

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radioactive decay

question

postulated that oceanic crust is formed at mid-ocean ridges and moves toward trenches, where it is destroyed

answer

Harry Hess

question

where New seafloor is being formed at mid-ocean ridges is called _____

answer

spreading centers

question

where Old seafloor is being destroyed at trenches is called ______

answer

subduction zones

question

driven by the heat escaping from the Earth's interior provides energy to maintain sea floor spreading

answer

Mantle Convection

question

Study of geological past by examining the Earth's magnetic conditions recorded in the rock samples.

answer

Paleomagnetism

question

(spreading centers) Example: mid-ocean ridges Characteristic: hydrothermal activity, pillow lavas, shallow earthquakes

answer

divergent

question

(subduction zones) Example: deep ocean trenches Characteristic: volcanoes, island arcs, deep earthquakes

answer

convergent

question

(two plates sliding past each other) Example: fracture zones, faults

answer

transform-fault

question

When hot water circulating near the mid-ocean ridges comes in contact with cold surrounding sea water, precipitation of sulfur-bearing minerals takes place.

answer

black smoker

question

Rich biological communities flourish near vents -vent community based on ________

answer

chemosynthesis

question

Regions where plates are pushing together

answer

convergent plate boundaries

question

a convergent plate boundary for example, the west coast of South America.

answer

Oceanic crust toward continental crust

question

a convergent plate boundary that occurring in the northern Pacific

answer

Oceanic crust toward oceanic crust

question

a convergent plate boundary one example is the Himalayas.

answer

Continental crust toward continental crust

question

is an oceanic feature, resulting from the action of offset mid-ocean ridge axis segments

answer

A fracture zone

question

are found on the ocean floor. They produce zig-zag plate margins, and are generally defined by shallow earthquakes.

answer

transform faults

question

is particles of organic or inorganic matter that accumulate in a loose, unconsolidated form. May be classified by grain size or by the origin of the majority of the particles.

answer

sediment

question

Although boulders, cobbles, and peddles occur in the ocean, most marine sediments are made of finer particles:

answer

sand, silt, and clay

question

Water flowing near a solid surface is slowed down by friction along the boundary, and the region of flow influenced by proximity to the surface is called the

answer

boundary layer

question

a change of velocity with depth - exists near the boundary

answer

A velocity gradient

question

Fine-grained sediments suggest ______ , while coarse sediments suggest ________.

answer

low-energy conditions, high- energy conditions

question

-Composed of particles of mostly one size. -Where energy fluctuates within a narrow range. -Deep-sea floor

answer

well-sorted sediments

question

* Sediments with a mixture of sizes. * Where energy fluctuates over a wide range. * Near submarine canyon by turbidity current

answer

poorly-sorted sediments

question

type of sediment that comes from land

answer

terrigenous

question

type of sediment hard parts of some marine organisms. (siliceous-silicon-containing) and (calcareous-calcium carbonate)

answer

biogenous

question

type of sediment that precipitated directly from sea water.

answer

hydrogenous

question

type of sediment that comes from outer space

answer

cosmogenous

question

Most sediment deposits are mixture of _______ and ________ particles.

answer

terrigenous and biogenous

question

a biogenous sediment that contains more than 30% of the hard parts (shells) of planktonic marine organisms is called ____

answer

ooze

question

sediment deposits formed by turbidity

answer

turbidites

question

of the shore or coast location of sediment deposits (contains mostly terrigenous material)

answer

neritic

question

of the open ocean of sediment deposits (contain a greater proportion of biogenies material)

answer

pelagic

question

deposit laid down by turbidity currents. (more prevalent in Atlantic than Pacific. Trenches in the Pacifc trap most of the turbidites)

answer

turbidites

question

the smallest sediment category (<0.004 mm) -make up about About 38% of deep-sea sediments

answer

clays

question

sediments of at least 30% biological origin (Calcareous ooze, siliceous ooze). -dominate in deep water

answer

oozes

question

in order to find oil you must find _____

answer

salt domes

question

sediments are thinnest near the ______, and thickest near the _______

answer

mid-ocean ridges, continental rise

question

what is the origin of most abyssal plain sediments?

answer

erosion from the continent

question

is almost always higher on continental shelves than in the deep ocean. Shelves are closer to terrigenous sources and usually high in biological productivity (source of biogenous sediments)

answer

Rate of sedimentation

question

are landforms that develop wherever a river enters a large body of water — whether ocean, lagoon, or even lake and deposits sediment more rapidly than can be eroded

answer

Deltas

question

atmosphere is a portion of the _____

answer

mantle

question

the first scientific expedition to use an echo sounder was ______

answer

meteor expedition

Exploring the Pacific: Polynesian Migration and Oceanography

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